Encyclopedia of Islam

See also 

ayatollah

; 

biography

; 

colonialism

; 

hisba

; 

ijmaa

; 

ijtihad

; 

imam

; i

slamism

; 

mUllah

; o

tto

-

man

 

dynasty

;  p

akistan

; 

reneWal

 

and

 

reForm

movements

; 

secUlarism

; 

shaykh

; 

stUdent

.

Further reading: Jonathan P. Berkey, Transmission of 

Knowledge in Medieval Cairo: A Social History of Islamic 

Education (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 

1992); R. Stephen Humphreys, Islamic History: A 

Framework for Inquiry. Rev. ed. (Princeton, N.J.: Princ-

eton University Press, 1991), 187–208; Joseph A. 

Kechechian, “The Role of the Ulama in the Politics of 

an Islamic State.” International Journal of Middle East 

Studies 18 (1986): 53–71; Ira M. Lapidus, Muslim Cities 

in the Later Middle Ages (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard 

University Press, 1967); Mojan Momen, An Introduc-

tion to Shii Islam (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University 

Press, 1985); Stephen Sharot, A Comparative Sociol-

ogy of World Religions: Virtuosos, Priests, and Popular 

Religion (New York: New York University Press, 2001), 

Muhammad Qasim Zaman, The Ulama in Contemporary 

Islam: Custodians of Change (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton 

University Press, 2002).