Dr. Carlos F. Márquez Linares Dr. Enrique F. Quero Gervilla Doctoral Programme in Languages, Texts and Contexts Faculty of Translation and Interpreting university of granada

Participial or subordinate construction

A noun (or several nouns with a conjunction)	5
A participle (one or several with a conjunction)					2
A verb			1	1
Phrasal verb nominative	1
Compound single- unit term		1
Noun (in attributive position) + noun	9	4

Adjective/participle + noun	7	3			1
Construction with prepositions	1	1			1
3 and more term components	12	17			5
Abbreviation with/without additional components or acronyms (complete or partial)	3

In the abovementioned table, 75 Calque and DT terms from the recommended translation section were analyzed considering their form. The left-hand column contains the information about the source (English) terms. The numbers indicate the amount of Russian terms of a certain form which correspond to the English ones.

1. Complex term (Source term with 3 or more elements)

The table indicates that 34 English terms comprising 3 and more term elements account for the majority of DT and Calque cases. It proves that the DT and Calque method is mostly form- driven. Compound terms, especially those containing more than 2 elements, are difficult to be reproduced in Russian. The most popular DT form in Russian is construction with prepositions. This appears between Descriptive Translation and Calque. In addition to this, the construction change might require extra elements, making the form of the term descriptive. A total number of 17 terms containing 3 or more components (excluding constructions with prepositions) were translated into Russian with the help of a preposition: cost data format; format for the cost data; cost format: данные о затратах и ставках возмещения (recommended translation on the basis of different resources) (dannye o zatratah i stavkah vozmeschenija, L.t.: Data about expenses and reimbursement rates); anti-takeover defense: меры по защите от поглощений (Ruscorpora) (mery po zashhite ot pogloshheniy; L.t.: defense measures against takeover(s); results-oriented annual report: отчёт о результатах работы за год (otchjot o rezultatah raboty za god; L.t.: a report on the results of work for a year); zero-base budgeting: cоставление бюджета с нуля (Academic) (sostavlenie bjudzheta s nulja; L.t.: budget compilation from

zero), third-party cost-sharing: участие третьей стороны в покрытии расходов (UNTERM) (uchastie tret’ej storony v pokrytii rashodov; L.t.: the participation of a third party in expense cover).

The majority of English terms with 3 or more components contain a compound word, e.g.: “result-oriented” in result-oriented annual report, “zero-base” in zero-base budgeting, “third- party” and “cost-sharing” in third-party cost-sharing. It proves that compound words in English contain extra semantic elements which should be retrieved and/or reproduced with the help of a preposition, because the construction is dense both semantically and grammatically. The only compound term of one word was translated into Russian with the help of a construction with a preposition: self-dealing: операции в собственных интересах (Academic) (operacii v sobstvennyh interesah; L.t.: operations for one’s own interests).

Nevertheless, the fact that the English word contains 3 or more elements does not imply that the Russian term should contain a preposition. If a complex term is translated into Russian with the help of a nominative construction, it means that the form of the term can be easily reproduced using Calque and descriptive elements without a preposition, e.g.: pre-emptive right: преимущественное право приобретения акций (Ruscorpora) (preimusshestvennoe pravo priobreteniya; L.t.: privileged right for the acquisition); two-tier board: двухуровневая структура совета директоров (IFC) (dvuhurovnevaya struktura soveta direktorov; L.t.: a two-level structure of a board of directors); non-performing loan: невозвратный кредит (nevozvratnyj kredit; L.t.: irrevocable credit) (Academic). The elements in these terms were translated together with other elements as one word, or with the help of a descriptive equivalent, which is close to a direct translation equivalent.

The translation of complex terms or terms containing 3 and more elements can result in a participial construction or a construction with subordinate elements, e.g.: asset-backed securities: ценные бумаги, обеспеченные активами (IFC) (cennye bumagi, obespechennye aktivami; L.t: securities backed/supported by the assets); acquisition secured creditor: обеспеченный кредитор, финансирующий приобретение (UNCITRAL-1) (obespechennyj kreditor, finansiruushhij priobretenie; L.t.: a secured creditor financing an acquisition). The

usage of the participial construction in Russian often requires additional elements. The latter term received a descriptive form not because of the element “secured”, but because of the elliptical construction, which was expressed with the help of the additional elements and the direct object: “финансирующий приобретение” (financing an acquisition). It is interesting to note that the term “secured creditor” is translated into Russian as обеспеченный кредитор (Lingvo) (obespechenniy kreditor), which is an example of Pure Calque. Nevertheless, the same dictionary offers translation equivalents with participial or prepositional constructions: кредитор, получивший обеспечение (в виде залога, ипотеки) (kreditor, poluchivshyj obespechenie (v vide zaloga, impoteki); L.t.: a creditor, having received security (in the form of a pledge or mortgage)); кредитор, имеющий обеспечение долга (kreditor, imejuschij obespechenije dolga, L.t.: a creditor, having the security of a debt), кредитор по обеспеченному долгу (Lingvo Economics and Lingvo Law) (kreditor po obespechennomu dolgu, L.t.: a creditor under the secured debt).

The term contains another element: “acquisition”. The term acquisition secured creditor risks being shaped with a construction employing two participles: *кредитор, получивший обеспечение долга и финансирующий приобретение (kreditor, poluchivshyj obespechenie dolga i finansirujushhij priobretenie; L.t.: a creditor, having received the security of the debt and financing the acquisition). Such a form discloses the meaning of the source term: ““acquisition secured creditor” which means a secured creditor that has an acquisition security right”; ““acquisition security right” means a security right in a tangible asset, or in intellectual property or the rights of a licensee under a license of intellectual property, which secures an obligation to pay any unpaid portion of the purchase price of an asset, or other credit extended to enable the grantor to acquire rights in the asset to the extent that the credit is used for that purpose” (UNCITRAL-3, 2016). Nevertheless, the term form with two participles is very unwieldy for LSP, which is the reason why the short equivalent is used for the translation of the term part.

2. Noun (in attributive position) + noun

Another group accounting for 13 cases of DT and Calque comprises terms with noun + noun construction, i.e. one noun stands in the attributive position: performance pay, control risk, etc. Such a construction is not common in Russian. Nevertheless, only 4 out of 13 cases are suggested for translation with the help of a preposition, e.g. control transaction: cделка по приобретению контроля (IFC) (sdelka po priobreteniju kontrolja; L.t.: a transaction on control acquisition). In other cases the translation does not require the change of the nominative construction, but rather employs descriptive elements with the components retrieved by Calque: deadlocks resolution: разрешение тупиковых ситуаций (IFC) (razreshenie tupikovyh situaciy;

L.t. resolution (of) deadlock situations); control risk: риск системы контроля (IFC) (risk sistemy kontrolja; L.t.: the risk (of) control system). It is possible to reproduce the construction with a noun in the attributive position by changing the case of a word (in the majority of situations it is the genitive case: риск системы контроля (the components “системы” and “контроля” belong to the genitive case in Russian). Often such a change requires descriptive elements to fulfill the missing semantic components or to shape the form of the Russian word: “системы” in the term риск системы контроля and “ситуаций” in the term разрешение тупиковых ситуаций.

3. Adjective/participle + noun

If the construction “noun (in the attributive position) + noun” cannot be found in Russian, the construction “adjective (or participle) + noun” is quite common. Nevertheless, a total of 11 English terms with such a form are translated descriptively. It means that the choice of the descriptive form was not driven by the form of the source term, e.g. the term financial distress has the following equivalent in Russian: бедственное финансовое положение (IFC) (bedstvennoe finansovoe polozhenie); L.t.: disastrous financial situation). The target term was partially retrieved using Calque; however, the term component “distress” has additional semantic meaning, which is explicit in Russian: “бедственное положение” (bedstvennoe polozhenie; L.t.: disastrous situation).

The term regular resources also receives a descriptive form because of the semantic components retrieved from the meaning of the whole term: средства регулярного бюджета (UNTERM) (sredstva reguljarnogo bjudzheta; L.t.: a fund of a regular budget). The additional component “бюджета” (byudzheta, L.t.: of a budget) makes the term concrete and related to its definition in English: “Of all the funds received by UNICEF, core resources – also known as Regular Resources (RR) – best allow UNICEF to reach children who are in the greatest need and at the greatest risk, whether they be the victims of a protracted conflict, an epidemic, or a natural or manmade disaster.” (UNICEF, 2015).

Although the majority of the source terms containing an adjective/participle and a noun can be easily translated into Russian with the help of the same construction, there are cases when the target term represents a prepositional construction or a participial construction. For instance, the term unquantifiable risk was shaped in Russian with the help of a participial construction: риск, неподдающийся количественной оценке (risk, nepoddaushhijsja kolichestvennoj otzenke; L.t.: risk not liable to the quantitative measurement). This translation can be considered relevant because the Calque of the component “quantifiable”: “квантифицированный” with the negative particle “не” is rarely used in Russian. The term contains the semantic component “inability”, which is likely to be made explicit in Russian (“the inability of investors to calculate how much risk they are taking with impact investment due it being relatively new territory” (Hudson, 2014).

The semantic components “being unable” or “not liable for something” are often made explicit in Russian with the help of a participle: unquantifiable: “не допускающий количественного определения” (Lingvo Economics) (ne dopuskajushhij kolichestvennogo opredelenija, L.t.: not permitting the quantative definition). Some terms have received the form of a prepositional construction in Russian. For example, the term unqualified opinion has the following equivalent in Russian: мнение без оговорок (IFC) (mnenie bez ogovorok; L.t.: an opinion without reservations). In this case the target term is not caused by the form of the source term, but rather by its meaning: “auditor's opinion of a financial statement, given without any reservations. <…>” (InvestorWords).

Accordingly, the term is close to the Pure Descriptive Translation method. The term can be attributed to the Calque and DT technique because it is partially retrieved by Calque (“мнение”: opinion).

4. Phrasal verb nominatives

Another group of terms without direct equivalents in Russian are phrasal verbs and phrasal verb nominatives. Translators should use aditional elements and construction changes as

instruments when dealing with such words. For instance, the term buy-oufto, rst“anding the

purchasing of a controlling share in a company” (Online Etymology Dictionary) can be translated into Russian using the nominative unit “выкуп” (vykup) (Lingvo Economics). Nevertheless, its short form and general meaning force translators to add descriptive elements to the target term: выкуп контрольного пакета акций компании (IFC) (Vykup kontrol’nogo paketa akcij kompanii; L.t.: buy-out/repurchase of a control package of shares); выкуп контрольного пакета акций (Ruscorpora) (vikup kontrol’nogo paketa aktziy; L.t.: repurchase of a control package of shares); выкуп контрольного пакета (Ruscorpora) (vykup kontrol’nogo paketa; L.t.: repurchase of a control package). The phrasal verbs or phrasal verb nominatives create difficulties for the translation when they form the part of a term, making it complex: management buy-out, leveraged buy-out, etc. The elliptical term form is not easily reproduced in Russian and requires descriptive elements: management buy-out: выкуп акций компании (её) менеджментом (Ruscorpora) (vykup akcij kompanii (eyo) menedzhmentom; L.t.: the buy-out of the shares of a company by its management). Additional components “акций компании” (akcij kompanii, L.t.: of the shares of a company) help to shape the form of the term and to connect the two components retrieved by Calque: “выкуп” (buy-out) and “менеджментом” (by management).

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