RHETORIC AS LITERATURE PHENOMENON
B.R. SULTANOV,
Head of English language and literature department
Gulistan State University
Before starting to discuss the problem of the value content of rhetoric, it is
necessary to answer the question of whether there is a subject for discussion, i.e.
whether rhetoric as a human activity represents any value. This question was,
perhaps, Central to the discussion of rhetoric in the period of its origin, in
Antiquity. This question was first raised by Plato in the dialogue «gorgius», in
which the famous Sophist gorgius defines rhetoric as» the ability to convince the
word and judges in the court, and advisers in the Council, and the people in the
People‘s Assembly, and in any other Assembly of citizens « [1, 484].
However, Socrates, whose image in Plato‗s dialogues was usually hidden by
Plato himself, is not satisfied with the answer received and, true to his method,
asks the question of what constitutes the persuasiveness of a rhetorical persuasion:
« Socrates. You are talking about a belief that is created by eloquence, but what is
this belief and what things it concerns» [1, 484]. Further, Socrates, or rather Plato,
speaking in his name, points out the differences in beliefs that arise from
knowledge and from faith, and the possibility of the latter being false. It is
important to note that for Socrates (read for Plato), knowledge is fundamentally
different from faith in that it cannot be false, otherwise it is not knowledge.
Obviously, in the light of modern philosophy of science, this is not quite true.
However, we will continue to follow the logic of Plato.
Gorgias easily agrees with Socrates ' thesis that rhetoric creates beliefs based
on faith, thereby driving itself into a prepared trap. Gorgias claims that a good
speaker can convince any person or group of people of anything without being an
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expert in this field. However, it turns out that what is said, first, does not apply to
specialists in a particular field, and secondly, that the speaker must know «what is
good, what is evil, beautiful or ugly, fair or unfair...» [1, 492]. Here Socrates (read
Plato) makes another serious assumption: knowing what justice is makes a person
fair, which implies that a person only commits just actions [1.493]. This
assumption is necessary for Plato to show that a rhetorician who knows justice
must also know other subjects on which he speaks, otherwise he cannot always act
justly!
In the end, Plato‗s Socrates defines eloquence as a skill, the essence of which
is shameful servility before people, «because it is directed to pleasure, and not to
the highest good» [1, 498]. Moreover, it is harmful, since it can harm the highest
good, for example, help to avoid a just punishment [1, 519-520]. However, even in
this dialogue, there are quite serious contradictions in Plato‗s position. These
contradictions are rooted in the rigidly monistic eidetic position of Plato, for whom
Truth, Beauty and Good are one, indivisible and unique. It is on this basis that the
assumptions are based that knowledge of the good is sufficient to make a person
good, and that knowledge has absolute certainty. Moreover, being consistent, Plato
through the mouth of Socrates denies the existence of differences in the perception
of different people of the same States [1, 521].
However, Plato‗s point of view is somewhat modified and softened in another
of his dialogues on rhetoric, in the «Phaedrus»: «It is clear to everyone That
writing speeches is not in itself shameful. F e d R. what is shameful then? S o K R
a t In my opinion, it is shameful to speak and write not as it should, but in an ugly
and malicious way» [2, 167]. But in the main, Plato‗s point of view remains
unchanged: «In Order for a speech to come out good, beautiful, does not the
speaker's mind have to comprehend the truth of what he is going to talk about?» [2,
169]. It is this approach to oratory that Plato believes to be correct, and confirms it
by putting the following words into the mouth of Socrates: However, my friend,
are we not attacking oratory too harshly? It, perhaps, be said to us: «What
nonsense you are talking about, you strange people! I do not force anyone who
does not know the truth to learn to speak; on the contrary, if my advice means
anything, let him who has the truth then come to me. I claim this: even those who
know the truth will not find the means to persuade them skillfully apart from me»
[2, 171]. This type of speech activity, which is inextricably linked with
philosophical analysis and synthesis, is called dialectics by Plato in the statements
of Socrates: «I, Phaedrus, and myself a fan of this distinction and generalization - it
helps me to reason and think. . Correctly or not I turn to those who can do it, God
knows, and I call them dialectics even now» [2, 176]. Atthesametime, dialecticsfor
Platopresupposestheonlycorrectlogicforunderstandingthetruth.
To rhetoric, which is subordinate to the dialectic so understood and therefore
indistinguishable from it, Plato contrasts a different understanding, which he puts
into the mouth of Socrates 'interlocutor, Phaedrus:» f e d R. This, dear Socrates, is
what I have heard: it is not necessary for one who intends to become an orator to
understand what is really just; it is enough to know what seems just to the majority
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who will judge. The same applies to what is really good and beautiful - it is enough
to know what appears to be so. This is how you can convince, and not with the
help of truth» [2, 169].
Thus, for Plato, rhetoric is just a means, and not the most important, but rather
auxiliary and secondary, in the dissemination of truth and good. Depending on the
rhetorician's knowledge or ignorance of truth and good, his following or
inheritance, his rhetoric may be evaluated positively or negatively. This assessment
of rhetoric as a whole is closely related to Plato‗s totally monistic interpretation of
Truth-Good.
If the speaker «has grasped the truth of what he is about to say,» then those
rhetorical devices which were developed by ancient Greek rhetoricians and which
were well known to Plato are justified. The following words of Socrates from this
dialogue confirm Plato‗s familiarity with contemporary rhetoric: «S o K R a t.
. In my opinion, the first place, at the beginning of the speech, should be the
introduction. . In second place - presentation and evidence, in third place -
evidence, in fourth - plausible conclusions. And the real Daedalus re-Chey, the one
who hails from Byzantium, calls another confirmation and additional
confirmation» [2, 177].
However, even in the matter of rhetorical devices, Plato remains true to
himself. For him, the formal structure of speech and its observance is not so
important as the knowledge of the subject of speech (as discussed above), but also
the knowledge of the listener's soul and the situation in which the speech is
delivered: «It is clear That whoever, according to the rules of art, instructs another
in the composition of speeches, will show exactly the essence of the nature of what
the speech is addressed to - and this will be the soul. And all his efforts are aimed
at this, it is the soul that he tries to convince. . Since the power of speech lies in its
effect on the soul.»
Thus, Plato of the period of writing «Phaedrus» began to treat rhetoric more
difficult and tolerant, but he still believes in the existence of one total truth that can
and should be known and communicated to others using rhetoric. Unlike Plato, his
pupil Aristotle did not follow the deductive path, deducing particular definitions
from certain universal concepts, but rather inductive, generalizing certain particular
aspects. This could not but be reflected in the differences in their views on rhetoric.
The main work of Aristotle devoted to rhetoric is called «Rhetoric», and the
main place in it is occupied by an enumeration, a certain generalization and some
classification of various rhetorical situations and techniques, methods of
persuasion, proof or justification. Aristotle, unlike Plato, does not attempt to
review the rhetoric from the point of view of how it contributes to absolute good
and the absolute truth, apparently, because the absoluteness of Aristotle rather the
immanent, and not transcendent to them, i.e. absoluteness in one form or another is
inherent in all things, and acts as their generalization, absolutization, and does not
exist as a separate ideal reality.
Thus, meaningless argument that some classes of things, some human
activities are more or less true and the good, and the question is about what place
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certain things in a single and continuous hierarchical system of being, about how
people should carry out a particular activity, to its implementation at the same time
was a definite move to the good: «Rhetoric is useful because the true and just are
inherently stronger than their opposites, so if decisions are not made properly, then
the speakers inevitably fail through their own fault, and this is reprehensible. If it is
said that those who use the power of speech unjustly can do much harm, then this
is the General property of all goods (excluding virtue), and especially those that are
most useful - such as physical strength, health, wealth, and the possession of
military power: applying these goods in accordance with justice, you can do a lot
of good, and contrary to justice - a lot of harm» [3, 12].
Thus, if according to Plato, rhetoric is not necessary for a person who
communicates with truth and Good, since it can not affect either his communion
with Them, or the communion of others with them, which is the sphere of
dialectics, then according to Aristotle, rhetoric is necessary for a person to bring
the good and just into the sphere of social reality. As you know, Aristotle
considered it impossible to exist ideas separately from things and the existence of
abstract ideas of «truth» and «good», «beauty», and therefore, especially, their
comprehension in accordance with a single algorithm, a single logic, which only
needs to be pushed by the human mind. Thus, good and truth are more abstract,
vague, complex, even more pluralistic, and at least less monistic in Aristotle‘s view
than in Plato‗s.
Thus, if Plato evaluates rhetoric rather negatively, as at best insignificant and
superfluous, and at worst harmful skill, then Aristotle - neutral in relation to Good
and Truth in General, if you can speak about Aristotle these concepts, and more
positively, as the art needed to spread the true, good and fair in society, and just as
a necessary means to achieve one‘s goals, that of Aristotle, recognizing the
participation in the absolute only, is much more important than Plato, recognized
the absoluteness of the only perfect reality. Hence the following definition of
rhetoric by Aristotle:»...rhetoric is the art of finding possible ways of persuading
about any subject. . Rhetoric, in principle, is able to present any subject as
convincing» [3, 13].
In this connection, Aristotle does not radically contrast dialectic, rhetoric and
sophistry, called eristics, but rather points to the commonality between them,
consisting in the consideration of opposites, which, however, dialectic reduces to a
single, eristics sharpens, emphasizing their equal probability, and rhetoric must
relate to specific circumstances, proving that which is necessary for reasons of
truth, good or benefit [3, 120]. But even in this proof, rhetoric, according to
Aristotle, is not free, since only speech based on «commonplaces» can be
convincing, i.e. plausible arguments that seem correct to all people or their
majority due to tradition, customs, laws, and authoritative opinion.
Thus, there is another disagreement between Plato and Aristotle regarding
rhetoric. If for Plato the primary, the main thing in rhetoric is a certain objective
truth, the Logos, or rather, only such speech, where the Logos is primary, justified
and bears the proud name of dialectics, then for Aristotle no less important place in
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rhetoric is occupied by the Ethos of the audience, which the rhetorician and his
speech must correspond to. Finally, the emotional pathos of the speaker and his
speech should come from the Ethos of the audience, since emotions arise where the
question is about what affects the fundamental values of the community.
A special place in the rhetoric of Aristotle is occupied by the intention or
purpose of the speaker. When Aristotle speaks of the goal of a rhetorician, he
focuses not on a specific goal, but on the values that are invoked. Thus, the Ethos
of various levels is Central to the rhetoric of Aristotle. Correlation with these or
other values will determine the purpose of speech, logical arguments are already
built in accordance with this goal, but the most weighty arguments are often
«commonplaces», appeals to traditions and authorities, and the pathos of speech
must flow from the Ethos of the audience if the rhetorician wants to achieve his
goal.
So, for Aristotle, rhetoric is a value-motivated means of speech for the
implementation of «good», «beautiful», «fair», «useful» in society, the more
successful it is, the more it relies on the ethos of the community, uses logical
reasoning and emotional pathos resulting from the ethos.
In Roman theoretical rhetoric, of which Cicero was the most prominent
representative, the question of whether rhetoric was necessary or useful was not
raised at all. For the Roman Republican political system, for Roman law, where
civil law with adversarial parties absolutely prevailed, where even criminal
offenses were considered in the form of claims, such questions did not make sense!
Therefore, the key question was: what should be effective rhetoric, what should be
the speaker, what should he know and be able to do? In fact, this is the subject of
Cicero‗s most fundamental work on rhetoric, the dialogue On the orator. The
dialogue in the three books is written in the form of a conversation between several
Roman citizens about oratory, in which the key role is played by the Roman
orators Crassus and Antony, who set out two distinct positions.
Crassus ' position is that the speaker should know as much as possible and at
least not take up writing and delivering speeches in areas in which he does not
understand: «Without considerable experience in public Affairs of all kinds,
without familiarity with laws, custom, and law, without a knowledge of human
nature and character, he cannot act in this field with sufficient instinct and skill. ...
Eloquence is unthinkable if the speaker has not assimilated a completely chosen
content» [4, 172].
This also applies to philosophy. Crassus seems to reverse Plato‗s position. If,
according to Plato, the rhetorician means nothing without a philosophical
comprehension of the truth, then, according to Crassus, any philosopher is forced
to be a rhetorician when he expounds his philosophy. Moreover, according to
Crassus, philosophy cannot exist without speakers, since only they make it
available to a wide audience: «Of course, if in the course of the speech will need
the so-called common places that happens very often and have to speak of the
immortal gods, of piety, of acceptance, friendship, and the universal law of justice,
of temperance, of greatness of soul and in General any virtues .then all the schools
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of philosophers will probably raise a cry that all this is their property, that the
orator has nothing to do with it. 57. Well, I do not object, even if they talk about
these subjects in their corners for the sake of passing the time; but the speaker
cannot be denied the advantage that the very questions about which philosophers
talk impotently and pale, he can put and discuss with all possible expressiveness
and pleasantness» [4, 175].
However, this position has a second side, which consists, according to
Crassus, in the need for speakers to learn the Sciences from experts, including
philosophers: «I ask, for example, whether it is possible to speak against a military
commander or for a military commander without experience in military Affairs, or
even without knowledge of distant lands and seas? Is it possible to speak before the
people about the adoption or rejection of proposed laws in the Senate - about all
public Affairs, without having a deep knowledge and understanding of political
science? Can speech inflame and soothe the emotional impulses and feelings of
listeners, without first studying carefully all that philosophers say about human
characters» [4, 175].
The opposite position, at least in the first book of the dialogue, is taken by
Crassus ' friend and opponent, Antony. He not only emphasizes the natural talent
of the speaker, the need for which Crassus also claims, but also insists that, in
addition to this talent and ordinary knowledge, the speaker needs only special
knowledge in the field of rhetoric and nothing more: «An orator is simply a person
who knows how to use words that are pleasant to the ear and judgments that are
persuasive to the mind in judicial and public Affairs .in addition, I want him to
have a voice, and expressiveness, and some wit» [4, 211]. Objecting to Crassus
about the necessity of speakers ' knowledge of philosophy, he remarks: «What a
big and serious speaker, wanting to arouse anger. have you ever been confused by
the fact that you did not know what anger is - whether it is the fervor of the mind
or the desire to punish an offense» [4, 212].
Regarding the need for a speaker to know the law, Antony notes that it can
not help much, since it is necessary to speak on issues that are controversial for
lawyers themselves [4, 217]. Thus, according to Antony, as a speaker, «we need a
person who is naturally intelligent and experienced in life, who would see through
what his fellow citizens think, feel, assume and expect, and all the people whom he
wants to convince of something with his speech» [4, 213]. Finally the apotheosis
of this position is the following words of Antony from the second book of the
dialogue: «Eloquence, in my opinion, is a field in which ability decides everything,
and in science almost nothing. Science, after all, deals only with such subjects as
are accessible to knowledge, while the speaker deals only with personal opinion
and not with knowledge. For we, first of all, speak to those who have no
knowledge, and secondly, we speak about such subjects that we do not know
ourselves. Therefore, just as they have different ideas and judgments about the
same things at different times, so we often make speeches that contradict each
other. Therefore, I will speak to you of such eloquence, which is based on
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deception, which only occasionally rises to true knowledge, which catches the
prejudices and even errors of people» [4, 232].
Thus, Antony finally takes the position of sophistic eristics, in which the
specific goal of achieving a result in a particular case justifies any rhetorical
techniques. Crassus ' position appears as an apology for rhetoric, while he believes
that rhetoric should be based on knowledge, however, it is not about metaphysical
knowledge, but about social knowledge, and therefore Crassus takes a position
between Plato and Aristotle.
However, in the later text of the second book, Antony's position changes
dramatically! He not only says that it is necessary for the speaker to study the
essence of the case [4, 249], but also that «all controversial issues, without
exception, by their nature and substance, can be considered in General» [4, 257].
Next, Antony sets out the main rhetorical techniques. In the third book, Crassus
actually continues the speech of Antony, however, emphasizing the need for
speakers to have a General education, without which they simply do not
understand the essence of the problems discussed and do not prepare the speech. It
seems that starting with a sharp change in the position of Antony, in the second
book Cicero through the mouth of his heroes presents his own point of view, which
is a somewhat softened original position of Crassus!
So, here we have considered the views of the most prominent ancient thinkers
on the value of rhetoric. A number of positions were identified. First, Plato‗s
approach denies rhetoric if it is not aimed at understanding the truth and does not
follow a single and unique logic of its achievement. Secondly, the position of
Aristotle, who recognizes the importance of rhetoric as a necessary tool for the
ethically correct solution of social issues. Third, the position of Cicero-Crassus,
who recognize the great importance of rhetoric for public life and the need for
speakers to be guided by the achievements of the social Sciences. Finally, the
fourth position was expressed by Plato‗s opponents in the dialogues «Gorgias» and
«Phaedrus», as well as by Antony in the first and at the very beginning of the
second book of Cicero‗s dialogue»On the orator». According to this position,
rhetoric is extremely important as a way to ensure the interests of a citizen in
society, while the truth or ethics of rhetorical techniques do not matter, but only
their effectiveness is important. The value content of these and some other
approaches becomes the subject of another study.
The analysis of the positions in relation to rhetoric proposed in Antiquity
allows us to conclude that the most important for identifying the value content of a
rhetorical position is to consider the intentions of the rhetorician. The second most
important question is what the speaker believes should most ensure the success of
the speech. Finally, the third most important aspect for identifying the value
content of a rhetorical position is the assessment of the value orientation of specific
rhetorical techniques.
Literature:
1. Plato. Collected works: In 4 vols. m.: Thought, 1990. Vol.
2. Plato. Collected works: In 4 vols. m.: Thought, 1993. Vol. II.
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3. Aristotle. Rhetoric (Translated from ancient Greek and notes by O. p.
Tsybenko, edited by O. A. Sychev and I. V. Peshkov). Poetics (TranslationV. G.
appelrota, ed. by F. A. Petrovsky) G‗ Commenting article by V. N. Marov,
Moscow: Labyrinth, 2007.
4. Cicero. Aesthetics: The Treatises. Speeches. Letters. Moscow: Iskusstvo,
1994.
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