Understanding Psychology (10th Ed)


Applying Psychology in the



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Understanding Psychology

Applying Psychology in the 
21st Century:
Testing the Value 
of Self-Affi
rmations: Am I Lovable 
Because I Tell Myself I’m Lovable?
Critical Research Issues
The Ethics of Research
Exploring Diversity: 
Choosing 
Participants Who Represent the Scope 
of Human Behavior
Neuroscience in Your Life:
The Importance of Using 
Representative Participants
Should Animals Be Used in Research?
Threats to Experimental Validity: 
Avoiding Experimental Bias
Becoming an Informed Consumer 
of Psychology:
Thinking 
Critically About Research
What research methods do psychologists use?

How do psychologists establish cause-
and-eff ect relationships in research studies? 
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Prologue
Why Did No One Help?
Hartford, Connecticut, police released a chilling video of a 
78-year-old man trying to cross a street with a carton of milk. 
He steps off the curb just as two cars that appear to be racing 
swerve on the wrong side of the street. The fi rst car swerves 
around the man. The second car hits him and throws him into 
the air like a doll, then speeds away. 
What follows is even more chilling: People walk by. Nine 
vehicles pass him lying in the street. Some drivers slow down 
to look but drive away. 
Angel Arce Torres lies in the street for more than a minute 
before a police car arrives. He died a year later from injuries 
sustained in the accident (Brown, 2008, p. E5; Owens, 2009)
Looking
Ahead
Why didn’t any passersby help the 78-year-old Torres? Did they 
not notice him? Or did they simply decide not to bother? 
Whatever the reason, they off ered no help to him, and he 
sustained serious injuries. 
If Torres’s experience were an isolated incident, we might be 
able to attribute the bystanders’ inaction to something particular 
about the situation or to the specifi c people involved. However, 
events such as this one are all too common. 
In one infamous case, a woman named Kitty Genovese was 
attacked by a man near an apartment building in Queens, New 
York. At one point during the assault, which lasted 30 minutes, 
she managed to free herself and screamed, “Oh, my God, he 
stabbed me. Please help me!” In the stillness of the night, no 
fewer than 38 neighbors heard her screams. Windows opened, 
and lights went on. One couple pulled chairs up to the window 
and turned off the lights so that they could see better. Someone 
called out, “Let that girl alone.” But shouts were not enough to 
scare off the killer. He chased Genovese, stabbing her eight more 
times, and sexually molested her before leaving her to die. And 
how many of those 38 witnesses came to her aid? As in Torres’s 
case, not one person helped (Rogers & Eftimiades, 1995). 
Such incidents remain dismaying—and perplexing. Why don’t 
bystanders intervene in such situations, particularly when there 
are many of them who could potentially off er help? At the time 
of the Kitty Genovese murder, editorial writers suggested that 
the incidents could be attributed to the basic shortcomings of 
“human nature,” but such an assumption is woefully inadequate. 
Many people have risked their own lives to help others in 
dangerous situations, and so “human nature” encompasses a 
wide range of both negative and positive responses. 
Psychologists puzzled over the problem for many years. After 
much research they reached an unexpected conclusion: Kitty 
Genovese probably would have been better off if only a few 
people, rather than many, had heard her cries for help. In fact, 
if only one bystander had been present, the chances that this 
person would have intervened might have been fairly high. It 
turns out that the fewer the witnesses to an assault, the better 
the victim’s chances of getting help. 
How did psychologists come to such a curious conclusion? 
After all, logic and common sense clearly suggest that more 
bystanders would produce a greater likelihood that someone 
would help a person in need. This seeming contradiction—and 
the way psychologists resolved it—illustrates a central challenge 
for the fi eld of psychology: asking useful questions about the 
unknown, and getting valid answers. 
Like professionals in any science, psychologists are vitally 
concerned with refi ning and expanding knowledge within their 
fi eld. In the following modules we’ll see how psychologists pose 
questions of interest and answer them through scientifi c research. 
We will fi nd that the answers psychologists obtain from their 
research not only advance our understanding of behavior but 
also off er the potential to improve the human condition.
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“Birds of a feather fl ock together”. . . or “Opposites attract”? “Two heads are better 
than one”. . . or “If you want a thing done well, do it yourself”? “The more the 
merrier”. . . or “Two’s company, three’s a crowd”? 
If we were to rely on common sense to understand behavior, we’d have consid-
erable diffi culty—especially because commonsense views are often contradictory. In 
fact, one of the major undertakings for the fi eld of psychology is to develop sup-
positions about behavior and to determine which of those suppositions are accurate. 
Psychologists—as well as scientists in other disciplines—meet the challenge of pos-
ing appropriate questions and properly answering them by relying on the scientifi c 
method. The

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