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But surely planning criteria could simply call for net Positive Development?



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Positive Development From Vicious Circles to V

But surely planning criteria could simply call for net Positive Development? 
Positive Development represents a paradigm shift, and thus requires 
proactive
re-development 
initiatives to lead the way. To the extent that money and effort are invested in bureaucratic processes, 
the choice between optional policies, projects or plans is likely to be made on the basis of opportunities 
presented. The choice made will minimize risks to business-as-usual. The ‘least change’ to the 
current paradigm that appears to meet policy directives will usually be preferred. Assessment by 
government agencies leans towards convention – that which is easily predicted by business, planning 
and other tools. Because innovative eco-logical design is virtually non-existent, it is therefore seen 
as inherently risky (hence another vicious circle). Without 
direct
government initiatives and signals, 
private investment is unlikely to be directed at improving urban social and environmental conditions 
– let alone increasing the ecological base. At best, it will aim for greater eco-efficiency. This is partly 
because impact assessments do not ‘weigh in’ the benefits of natural systems. Nor do they put a value 
on their potential to 
replace
high-maintenance, capital-intensive urban infrastructure with natural 
systems. At all levels of environmental management, the economic and social gains still only need 
to outweigh the ecological losses. Thus, while SA has potential, it so far has only extended the EIA 
process. Approvals are still based on relativity, not sustainability, and usually allow tradeoffs.
Why and how do SAs allow tradeoffs of ecological losses for social gain?
The EIA process has its conceptual roots in cost–benefit analysis, the dominant model of decision-
making available back then. The idea of tradeoffs is intrinsic to the cost–benefit decision framework.
Initially, EIAs couched analyses in terms of whether the net 
economic
benefits outweighed the net 
environmental
costs. Many early impact assessments counted the economic benefits of proposed 
developments, but not the economic costs of externalities to the public.

They also balanced 
environmental costs against financial benefits in ‘person years’, not in ecological time. Even when the 
economic costs of environmental damage were gradually recognized, the scales were weighted towards 
economic benefits. EIAs not only downplayed the economic costs of environmental disruptions, they 
downplayed the economic benefits of an undisturbed environment. Many decision processes, in effect, 
still do this. A development that created jobs and commerce would appear to be an ‘improvement’ 
over the status quo – despite what were considered ‘inevitable’ environmental impacts. At the time, 
the idea of creating net positive ecological improvements was inconceivable. Therefore, people 


124
Positive Development
could not ask more of a development than that the gains offset some of the public costs. Gradually, 
means were developed for offsetting negative impacts by transferring some costs to developers, called 
‘exactions’. Exactions, or impact fees, are offsets negotiated or legislated from developers by councils 
in exchange for development approval [Box 30]. Examples of exactions would be the requirement 
that suburbs provide their own services or public parks, or that commercial buildings provide public 
plazas or day-care facilities.

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