So what’s wrong with exactions to offset environmental and social impacts?
The problem is that exactions enable more growth with more negative impacts overall, without
reducing total resource flows or fixing the environmental problems created by existing development.
Moreover, short-term social benefits and long-term ecological costs are not commensurate in any
way. Ecological values have completely different metrics than social ones. No-one really knows how
to measure either, let alone how to compare them because, once again, both society and nature are
complex, interactive systems [Box 41]. In any case, we almost always ‘discount’ the future, subjectively
if not formally [Box 42]. Tradeoffs or exactions are also subject to the values of planners and to
the planners’ power relative to developers and their political associates. In seeking concessions
from more powerful developers in a cost–benefit context, planners would not think of requiring
net positive environments. Also, the idea of a design approach that uses and enhances natural
systems (rather than choosing the lesser of evils) is outside the traditional planning paradigm, let
alone the cost–benefit framework. The exclusion of natural systems from the design repertoire is
exacerbated by the division of planning and urban design. Land-use planning did not evolve within
a design paradigm. The origins of planning were in ‘zoning’, the division of land uses into single
function areas to avoid nuisances (ie noise, smells and dirt). Therefore, as we shall see, planning
decision tools (influenced by business administration and operations research) were designed to
allocate land and compare and choose options – not to conform to, or expand, carrying capacity
[Chapter 12].
Could sustainability assessments simply ‘not’ give any credit for tradeoffs?
Tradeoffs are integral to the triple bottom line (TBL) approach, as well as to cost–benefit frameworks.
SAs purport to include sustainability within the EIA framework. But a TBL approach
either
separates
social, economic and ecological values
or
puts them in one list on the grounds that they are inseparable.
Paradoxically, either approach is ‘additive’. That is, values in these three areas are treated as more or
less equal and can be traded off to achieve a total ‘score’ (whether or not translated into numbers).
Given the fundamental (false) premise that the ecological base of cities cannot be increased, one
can sacrifice ecological for social values if the total positive benefits seem great enough relative to
the negatives. In practice, therefore, the implicit SA ‘standard’, like that of EIAs, is
still
essentially
whether the economic benefits outweigh the environmental benefits. SA will not foster net Positive
Development until there is a widespread recognition that:
•
The ecological base or life-support system is the bottom line, not competing values and
interests
•
Development can create the conditions by which urban areas can contribute to the ecological
base and public estate
A process that assumes we can offset negative environmental impacts with positive social impacts in
a cost–benefit framework also reinforces the biases against eco-retrofitting.
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Urban Sustainability Assessment
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