‘This is a wonderful book that should be on the desk of every architect and planner. It shows how


So how could eco-solutions be ranked in terms of their whole system impacts?



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Positive Development From Vicious Circles to V

So how could eco-solutions be ranked in terms of their whole system impacts?
The following sections present a hierarchy of eco-innovations.
Level 1 – Cleaner production
This level includes new designs, products or production systems that may increase resource flows 
overall, but do so at less negative impact per unit than the norm. This level reduces the relative 
impacts of 
future
actions.
For example, geo-sequestration (which captures and buries some of the emissions from oil and 
possibly coal production) could arguably qualify as a (low) level 1 action. However, it creates risks 
which must be considered. In 1980, sudden leakage of CO
2
from Lake Nyos, in Cameroon, killed 1700 
people by asphyxiation. CO
2
also causes acidification of groundwater. It also does not capture all the 
CO
2
produced at the plant and it can only address a fraction of total CO
2
emissions. Further, it only 
reduces some impacts. It does not reduce radical terraforming and the production of toxins entailed 
in mining. In the case of coal (as opposed to oil) production, it is only applicable to new plants, not 
retrofitting, so it increases embodied waste as well. It is only better than continuing to build very 
dirty industries. Thus public funding in this category could be next to counterproductive.
Level 2 – Recycling and ‘down-cycling’
This level is where the innovation reduces the impacts of waste from 
ongoing
processes or activities, 
through reuse or reassembly. While recycling can reduce resource flows dramatically, there is usually 
some waste, and a reduction of use value or down-cycling.
8
An example of addressing problems of ongoing waste is mattress recycling. Until recently, old 
mattresses were dumped, partly because ‘reuse’ involved health issues. But in some places today, they 


241
Reversing Resource Transfers
are reconstructed with replacement materials, while old components and materials are reprocessed.
However, the term ‘recycled’ can be misleading. For example, recycled steel takes a quarter of the 
energy of ordinary steel to produce, but ‘recycled steel’ may only have 25 per cent recycled steel 
content. Likewise, recycling aluminium soft drinks cans is not as good as drinking water from a 
glass. Using waste timber from milling processes to power the plant or equipment (or ‘co-generation’) 
could be considered ‘down-cycling’ if there are better uses for the organic cellulose. This, again, 
would depend on the viability of options, such as using a solar thermal power system instead [Box 
18]. Recycling ‘pays’, so loans should be adequate to fund the transition to recycling systems. The 
efficiencies that recycling provide should make them competitive on their own, especially once full 
cost pricing is instituted, or perverse subsidies are eliminated.

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