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C O N C E P T S
analyses, les flottements sont un caractère constant des résultats auxquels
arrive la langue par son activité]
The linguistic system is not a self-con
tained entity but a process that by its fundamental mechanisms is engaged
in the “flottement” o f which Glas gives us a taste.
Simon Bouquet notes that Saussure broke off his work on the ana
grams that he believed were concealed in Latin verse in order to prepare
the introduction to his second Course, where his philosophy o f language
takes off, and that “it is not forbidden to hypothesize, against the usual sto
ry, that this search for anagrams leads to the theory o f v a l u e . T h i s is an
idea that would demand a good deal o f work and remains to be explored,
but what one can say is that since the theory o f value displaces meaning
in its insistence that signifleds depend on the infinite network o f signs,
it brings us back to the Saussurean formulation quoted earlier: “Un mot
quelconque évoque inévitablement par association tout ce qui peut lui res
sembler.” If this is so, then the task for a theory o f language is to explore
what weight to give to peut here. What can can mean? Resemblance is un-
circumscribable but still to be explored, and to see what resemblance can
mean and what can be possible as an effect o f resemblance requires the sort
of radical writing and reading undertaken in Glas.
37. Engler, Cours, 392.2.2602.
38. Simon'ÿ>o\x(\\i&., Introduction I I lecture de Saussure (Paris: Payot, 1997),
371
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The Performative
I propose to consider the vicissitudes o f a concept that has flour
ished in literary and cultural theory in the United States in recent years.
The concept o f the performative has developed in unexpected ways since
it was first introduced by the philosopher J. L. Austin in 1955 to describe
a special kind o f speech act; an utterance that accomplishes the action
to which it appears to refer. At roughly the same time the notion o f per
formance was emerging, quite independently, as central in an innovative
strand o f work in the social sciences. Gregory Bateson’s seminal “A Theo
ry o f Play and Fantasy” (1955) established an approach to behavior as vari
ously framed performance, pursued in his collection Steps Toward an Ecol
ogy o f M ind; and Irving Goffman’s pioneering
The Presentation o f S e lf in
Everyday Life (1956) adopted a framework o f theatricalized action. Coff
man writes in his introduction, “The perspective employed in this report
is that o f the theatrical performance; the principles derived are dramatur
gical ones.” * And later in the same work we read, “A status, a position, a
social place is not a material thing, to be possessed and then displayed; it is
a pattern o f appropriate conduct, coherent, embellished, well-articulated.
Performed with ease or clumsiness, awareness or not, guile or good faith, it
is nonetheless something that must be enacted and portrayed, something
that must be realized” (75). Coffman cites Sartre’s famous example of the
waiter who is playing the waiter, performing the role. Social structure is to
I.
Irving Goffman, The Presentation o f S elf in Everyday Life (1956; repr..
New York: Doubleday, 1959), xi.
138
C O N C E P T S
be analyzed through the patterns o f behavior made evident in the perfor
mance o f roles.
What the social scientists Goffman, Bateson, Victor Turner, and oth
ers share is a focus on the construction o f meaning as a social process, in
which analysis needs to identify the frames, scripts, and boundaries that
make possible the play o f meaning. The ascription o f normativity to social
roles and scriptings goes along with an interest in processes o f reframing,
the generation o f meaning by the violation o f scriptings. Theater provides
sociologists and anthropologists with models for thinking about how so
cial structures are embodied and negotiated in the actual behavior o f indi
viduals; social relations emerge above all in the enactments o f roles.
If we take the root notion o f performance to be theatrical or musical,
then we have as our point o f departure a concept that combines creativity
and constraint: we have access to a work through its performances (as is
more obviously the case with a musical composition); we can compare per
formances o f the same work. Each performance involves both a script and
interpretation. The concept o f performance in the theater focuses atten
tion on production rather than text— on event, for which there is also an
audience to be considered: there is no performance without an audience,
at least potential, and thus social circumstances.
Since the pioneering work o f Goffman, Austin, and others, the sense
o f the importance o f a performative dimension o f language, behavior, and
identity itself has only grown, though the relations among various think
ers’ notions o f the performative and performance are scarcely clear. One
way to view the situation would be from the vantage point o f theater stud
ies, as the coming into its own o f a root notion o f performance that has
long served as a general figure for life itself: “All the world’s a stage / And all
the men and women merely players.”^ Marvin Carlson, in his authoritative
survey. Performance: A Critical Introduction, writes, “With performance as
a kind o f critical wedge, the metaphor o f theatricality has moved out o f the
arts into almost every aspect o f modern attempts to understand our condi
tion and activities, into almost every branch o f the human sciences— soci
ology, anthropology, ethnography, psychology, linguistics.”^ Writing about
2. William Shakespeare, As You Like It,
act
2, scene 7.
3. Marvin Carlson,
Performance: A Critical Introduction, 2nd ed. (New
York: Roudedge, 2004), 6.
the new field o f performance studies, which is centered on the theater but
expands beyond it in various directions, Carlson observes that while per
formance enters social science disciplines as a metaphor o f theatricality
and then is developed into a critical concept, the results o f work in social
science fields on performance and performativity have provided stimulus
and inspiration to practitioners o f performance studies in the humanities.
There is an orderly loop o f enrichment. But from Carlson’s perspective the
development o f the concept o f the performative is a side issue,"^ which cer
tainly is not the case in literary and cultural studies.
But there is a third sense o f performance, not explicitly connected to
the theatrical or the social-scientific usage but lurking in the background,
and who can say what surreptitious, unconscious influence it exercises?
This is the idea o f performance associated with modern capitalism. Perfor
mance is what counts; pay should follow performance. Executives have to
perform, where performance is related to the bottom line (frequently tied
to eliminating other people’s jobs). Capitalist performance is occasionally
linked to a certain theatricality— o f the superstar C EO who makes a splash
on the public stage— but this sense is not foregrounded, and the sexual in
nuendo is doubtless stronger than the theatrical: you want your executives
to perform as you want a male lover to perform.
In a related sense Jean-François Lyotard, in The Postmodern Condi
tion, takes performativity to be what has replaced grand narratives: we have
lost our faith in narratives o f progress, o f the unity o f knowledge, or o f
emancipation, and believe instead in “performativity” ; efficiency replaces
narrative projections as the determining value. Lyotard says that Austin’s
sense o f the performative and “the new current sense o f efficiency mea
sured according to an input/output ratio . . . are not far apart. Lyotard’s
analysis is not usually cited in discussions o f performance and performa
tivity, but one might wonder whether it does not lurk somewhere in the
background o f our contemporary interest in performance and performa
tivity: we want the objects o f our attention to perform, to deserve to be
4. The index does not contain a listing £
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