On Algebra Education in Russian Schools
153
following type:
• Determine the discriminant of the equation x
2
+ 7x − 1 = 0 and
answer the following questions:
(a) Does the equation have roots? (b) If it does, then how
many? (c) Are the roots rational or irrational numbers? (Dorofeev,
Suvorova et al., 2009a, p. 118)
• Find a value of c for which the equation 5x
2
−2x+c = 0 has roots,
and find a value of c for which it does not have roots. (p. 118)
• Given the equation 2x
2
− 7x + 3 = 0, write a new equation,
switching the places of coefficients a and c in the given equation.
Solve both equations. How are their roots related? (p. 119)
Students examine techniques for solving specific types of quadratic
equations, namely incomplete quadratic equations (equations of the
forms ax
2
+ bx = 0 and ax
2
+ c = 0). The study of quadratic equations
concludes with an examination of formulas that connect the roots of a
quadratic equation with its coefficients (note that in contrast to many
foreign textbooks, in Russia this topic is traditionally studied — with
reason — after the formulas for solving quadratic equations have been
derived). The students use these formulas to find roots mentally and
to check whether the solutions to equations are correct. Note, too,
that this material is employed in all textbooks as a training ground for
solving problems of the most varied levels of difficulty. Problems in
these topics, which are given to students in all textbooks as well as in
the classroom, no longer serve to develop their skills, but to develop
their thinking, to organize interesting mathematical activities, and to
expand the arsenal of techniques that are available to the students.
These problems cover a broad range of levels of difficulty for different
categories of students. Consider the following examples of problems
solved by students in class [some of them are taken from the textbook
by Dorofeev, Suvorova et al. (2009a, p. 134)]:
• Without solving the equation x
2
+7x−1 = 0, determine whether
it has roots, and if it does, what their signs are.
• Find all integer values of p for which the equation x
2
+px+15 = 0
has integer roots.
• Knowing that the quadratic equation x
2
+px+q = 0 has roots x
1
and x
2
, formulate a quadratic equation that has roots 3x
1
and 3x
2
.
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Russian Mathematics Education: Programs and Practices
b1073-ch04
154
Russian Mathematics Education: Programs and Practices
• Prove that if the sum of the coefficients of the quadratic equation
ax
2
+ bx + c = 0 is equal to 0, then one of the roots of this
equation is the number 1. Mentally find the roots of the equation
100x
2
− 150x + 50 = 0.
Later, when they are close to graduating from basic school, students
may solve third- and fourth-degree equations, such as
2x
3
− x
2
− 8x + 4 = 0 and 2x
4
+ 9x
2
+ 4 = 0.
The main purpose of this material in the general education course is to
broaden the students’ horizons. The historical context that naturally
arises in the study of such equations is present in all textbooks in one
form or another. For example, in the textbook of Dorofeev, Suvorova
et al. (2009b), the presentation is organized as follows:
After a short survey of what the students already know about tech-
niques for solving linear and quadratic equations, they are informed
that they will be able to solve higher-degree equations only in certain
specific cases, and that already for fifth-degree equations there is no
general formula at all. At the beginning of the 19th century, the
Norwegian mathematician Niels Henrik Abel proved that it is impos-
sible to obtain the roots of even such a comparatively simple equation
as x
5
+ x − 1 = 0 by using arithmetic operations and finding roots.
For third- and fourth-degree equations, such formulas do exist.
The method for solving third-degree equations was discovered by
Italian mathematicians in the 16th century. But the formulas for
solving third- and fourth-degree equations are so complicated that
they are practically never used. Also, in order to use them, one
must employ new numbers, so-called complex numbers, which were
invented for this purpose. (Dorofeev, Suvorova et al., 2009b, p. 131)
Subsequently, the students are introduced to two techniques for
solving third- and by fourth-degree equations by factoring and by
introducing a new variable.
In studying equations, students also solve equations that contain a
variable in the denominator of a fraction, such as
2x
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