8
The Organization of the Educational Process
This section addresses studies devoted to the general principles that
underlie the writing of textbooks and teaching manuals in mathematics,
the organization of the educational process in mathematics under spe-
cial conditions, the development of mathematics education standards,
and the structure of mathematics lessons.
The very word “standard” came to Russian mathematics education
relatively recently — in the USSR and other countries of the Soviet
bloc, discussion usually revolved around programs that had to be fol-
lowed very precisely. The word “standard” was, and indeed continues
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to be, understood in various ways, but in any case, from a normative
perspective, it has always been taken to mean something that replaces
old notions (this must be borne in mind since, in other countries,
standards often usher in some form of additional standardization,
whereas in Russia they have replaced a more centralized system).
Yaskevich (1992) discusses the theoretical principles that may be
used for defining mathematics education standards (for Poland). By
“standard” she understands a norm that includes such components
as minimum requirements and prospective requirements, as well as
minimum content and supplementary material (p. 15). Furthermore,
analyzing Polish and foreign studies, she formulates educational aims
and describes principles and a mechanism for selecting content. Based
on her theoretical work, she has developed a curriculum plan for classes
4–8 in Poland; this plan has undergone an experimental trial, which,
according to her, has supported her theoretical propositions.
Zaikin (1993) studies a problem that is important specifically for
Russia, with its vast spaces between small population centers: the
problem of teaching in very small village schools, i.e. in schools
whose classes have very few students (sometimes even only one).
Remarking that education under such conditions must be organized
in a nonstandard manner, the author offers a formalized description of
organizational structure. To this end, he identifies such parameters as
methods of grouping (the teacher can work with the whole class, with
groups, or with individual students), methods of student collaboration
(the author argues that students may work collectively, cooperatively,
or individually), and methods of teacher supervision (the students may
work under the direct supervision of the teacher, partly independently
or wholly independently). This schema allows Zaikin to define the work
format at every point in the lesson and to describe the structure of the
lesson (as a chain of triplets that characterize each episode). Further,
he studies the effectiveness of different formats in classes (on the basis
of observations and tests).
Manvelov (1997) studies the structure of mathematics lessons
under different conditions. Identifying the most characteristic types
of lessons, he divides them into groups. For example, the first group
includes lessons devoted to reinforcing what has been learned, lessons
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devoted to the generalization and systematization of knowledge,
lessons devoted to testing and monitoring, and so on. The second
group includes lecture lessons, seminar lessons, workshop lessons,
and so on; one more group includes competition lessons, simulation
exercise lessons, theatrical lessons, and so on. Manvelov notes, however,
that quite often, not the whole lesson but only a part of it has a given
form. In other words, the lesson consists of several parts, which may
be described in the above terms. Further, Manvelov studies the effec-
tiveness of different configurations (relying on teachers’ assessments)
and looks at the effectiveness of different lesson structures in terms
of other parameters (such as the quality of the content chosen for the
lesson). His study describes experimental teaching on the basis of the
approaches to lesson construction that he proposes, and compares these
classes with control classes.
Gelfman’s (2004) goal is to construct educational texts that can
create propitious conditions for intellectual character-building for
students in grades 5–9. Relying on theoretical analysis, she identi-
fies a set of functions that contemporary textbooks must perform
(including educational, supervisory, developmental, and other func-
tions). The notion of intellectual character-building is elaborated
by the author; for example, she mentions interest in patterns or
in searching for unifications as characteristics that are desirable for
students to develop). Further, she focuses on the course in mathematics
for grades 5–9, attempting to establish theoretically the principal
pathways for enriching the students’ conceptual, metacognitive, and
emotional–evaluative experience in studying such a course. The con-
clusion of the study is devoted to discussing work on experimental
manuals.
Grushevsky (2001) focuses not just on textbooks, but also on
so-called educational–informational kits, which include contemporary
information and communication technologies. The author claims to
have developed a general structure for such kits and the theoretical
foundation for their assembly, including suggestions for new mathe-
matics education technologies (p. 12). In his conclusion, he describes
the results of teaching in schools and colleges with the use of kits
developed according to his methodology.
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