x + 2
√
x − 1 +
x − 2
√
x − 1, if
1
≤ x ≤ 2. (p. 102)
• For what value of a is the sum of the squares of the roots of the
equation x
2
+ (a − 1)x − 2a = 0 equal to 9? (p. 108)
• Prove that the greatest value of the expression sin x +
√
2 cos x
is
equal to
√
3
. (p. 180)
The first two of these problems are recommended for grade 7, the
next two for grade 8, and the last one for grade 9. As can be seen,
these and similar problems placed rather high demands on students’
technical skills, but the reasoning skills required to solve them were
also quite high (of course, students were also given simpler problems
to solve in mathematics circles and electives — the examples above
were chosen to illustrate the types of problems offered).
There is a considerable amount of material in geometry for
school extracurricular work. The curriculum for grades 7–9 contains
a sufficiently complete and deductive exposition of Euclidean plane
geometry; this material may be used as a foundation for posing
problems that are quite varied in character. Indeed, school textbooks
themselves usually provide considerably more material than can be
studied and solved in class. Among the supplementary manuals, we
should mention the popular and frequently reprinted problem book
by Ziv (1995), intended for use in ordinary classes, but containing
more difficult problems recommended for mathematics circles. Again,
since lack of space prevents us from describing these problems in any
detail, we will confine ourselves to a single example:
A point D is selected inside a triangle ABC. Given that
m∠BCD + m∠BAD > m∠DAC,
prove that AC > DC . (Ziv, 1995, p. 59)
The solution of this problem, which is assigned to seventh graders,
is based on the fact that the longest side of a triangle lies opposite
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the largest angle and on the properties of a triangle’s exterior angle.
However, to arrive at this solution, the students must possess a certain
perspicacity and, above all, a comparatively high level of reasoning skills.
Solving geometric problems as part of extracurricular work (and usually
in classes as well) practically always involves carrying out proofs of one
kind or another.
Evstafieva and Karp’s (2006) manual gives an idea of what kind
of typical Olympiad-style material might be studied in mathematics
circles. This collection of problems, intended mainly for working
with ordinary seventh graders in ordinary classes, contains a section
entitled “Material for a Mathematics Circle.” This section has five
parts:
• Divisibility and remainders
• Equations
• Pigeonhole principle
• Invariants
• Graphs
As can be seen, the topics are quite traditional for mathematics
circles of even higher levels (Fomin et al., 1996). But here the
assignments are limited to relatively easy problems, the number of
which, however, is relatively large and which are organized in such
a way that, after analyzing one problem, the students can solve several
others in an almost analogous fashion. For example, the following three
problems appear in a row:
• The numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, …, 2005 are written on the blackboard.
During each turn, a player can erase any two numbers x and
y and write down a new number x + y in their place. In the
end, one number is left on the board. Can this number be
12,957?
• The numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, …, 2005 are written on the blackboard.
During each turn, a player can erase any two numbers x and y
and write down a new number xy in their place. In the end, one
number is left on the board. Can this number be 18,976?
• The numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, …, 2005 are written on the blackboard.
During each turn, a player can erase any three numbers x, y, and
z, and write down two new numbers
2x
+y−x
3
and
x+2 y+4 z
3
in their
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place. In the end, two numbers are left on the board. Can these
numbers be 12,051 and 13,566? (p. 150)
A problem of the same type as the first of these problems (although
slightly more difficult) also appears in the aforementioned manual by
Fomin et al. (1996). The solution to the problem above is very simple:
the sum of the numbers on the board does not change after the given
operation, and consequently the number left on the board at the end
must be equal to the sum of all the numbers that were on the board
at the beginning, which is obviously not the case if the last number is
12,957 (note that the problem is posed in such a way that this answer
is obvious in the full sense of the word — it is not necessary to find
this sum). But in the problem book that is aimed at a more selective
audience, the very next “similar” problem is far more difficult, whereas
in the case above it is relatively easy for the students to determine what
remains invariant in the subsequent problems; they might be asked to
invent an analogous problem on their own, and so on. In other words,
the goal is not so much to solve increasingly difficult problems by using
a strategy that has been learned as to become familiar with this strategy
itself — in this instance, with the concept of invariants.
Thus, the topics studied in mathematics circles are often mixed,
including some amount of Olympiad-style problems and typical diffi-
cult school-style problems.
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