6
Long-Term Assignments
Projects, which are popular in the United States and many other
countries, were also popular in Russia (USSR) in the years following
the Revolution. The changes in pedagogy that occurred in the 1930s
forced educators to make a complete break with these techniques.
The very word “project” did not re-enter the school lexicon until
decades later. However, assignments meant to be completed over an
extended period of time (a week, a month, a summer vacation, etc.)
have been and continue to be used in Russian mathematics education
and assessment.
Probably the most widespread assignments of this type are problem
sets that students are given to solve. Such problem sets can be put
together in the most varied ways. The teacher may simply ask the
students to solve all of the problems on a given topic from some
problem book. For example, school textbooks often contain sets of
review problems at the end of each chapter; alternatively, teachers
may compile a problem set themselves by drawing on problem books
ordinarily used for quizzes and tests. Some collections or books for
teachers contain special sets of assignments meant to be completed over
an extended period of time — in particular, sets of difficult problems
on various topics for classes with an advanced course in mathematics
(Karp, 1991).
When teachers give students such assignments, they usually realize
that it is practically impossible to guarantee that the students will solve
them completely independently. Therefore, such assignments are often
seen as having, first and foremost, an educational function rather than
a formally evaluative one. Consequently, students are assessed on the
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basis of the solutions which they have provided and on the basis of
their ability to reproduce some of these solutions in class meaningfully
(in the context of an oral or written review).
A long-term assignment may also require students to study new
material on their own — for example, to read a section of a textbook
that is marked with an asterisk as optional and to solve the problems
in this section. The assessment itself may be carried out, for example,
orally, after class; in such cases, usually only good grades are given.
Long-term assignments may also be of a completely different
nature. The already-cited A. R. Maizelis (2007) often had his students
build various kinds of models. Building even an oblique triangular
prism is not easy, and Maizelis’s students built models that were far
more difficult than that. These models were put to use in geometry
classes and other, even nonmathematical, classes; at the same time,
they served as a means of assessing the students’ ability to think
geometrically. Today, in addition to Wenninger’s classic book (1974),
one can recommend a number of newer texts to teachers who are
interested in giving such assignments — for example, Zvavich and
Chinkina, 2005. However, as far as we have been able to observe,
assignments of this type are not widespread.
We have already mentioned student-prepared reports, such as those
about the lives and work of research mathematicians. The preparation
of such a report is, of course, also a long-term project, as is the writing
of research papers in general. According to our observations, projects
connected with the study of various applications of mathematics (for
example, the collection of various kinds of data and the subsequent
identification of various kinds of patterns in the collected data), which
are popular outside Russia, are today quite rarely employed in Russian
mathematics education, possibly because not much attention is devoted
to topics in finite mathematics in general. As for projects that involve
any kind of measurements, they are usually carried out within the
framework of other subjects — above all, physics.
In recent years, a new form of assessment has begun to penetrate
school education, namely the creation of a portfolio. The word
“portfolio” does not exist in Russian (the Russian word is “portfel’”)
and its very use already reveals a deliberate borrowing from foreign
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practices. Lukicheva and Mushtavinskaya (2005), for example, propose
the following structure for a portfolio in mathematics:
1. Official documents (for example, certificates from Olympiads and
competitions);
2. Creative work (here, the authors suggest including records of the
student’s participation in activities that have no official status,
reports and research papers, projects and models, as well as the
student’s best mathematics notebooks, written tests, and quizzes);
3. References, recommendations, and self-reports.
A student’s portfolio, in the opinion of Lukicheva and Mushtavin-
skaya, must be repeatedly assessed by the teacher and by the other
students, both through discussions about it and through a formal
presentation in front of the class. As for its concrete formats and
criteria, the authors recommend that students and teachers agree on
them beforehand. In general, the admirers of this genre see both the
structure and the topic of a portfolio, and its subdivision into specific
sections, as emerging from a continuous process of discussions and
consultations. It is gratifying that the cited guidelines stipulate that
creativity and humor should be welcome during the compilation of a
portfolio. We should note, however, that we have no evidence that this
form of assessment enjoys widespread use in Russia today.
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