7.2
Exams
Final oral tests, referred to above, to some extent took the place of
yearly final exams. At certain stages of its development, the Soviet
(Russian) school system had no need for final tests, since every year
ended with “transition exams,” which students had to take to pass from
one grade to the next, in many subjects and certainly in mathematics.
At other stages, by contrast, all “transition exams” were abolished and
only so-called graduation exams were left in place — at the end of
basic school and secondary school, respectively. Below, we will talk
about written graduation exams in mathematics for grades 9 and
11, which are conducted in a centralized manner. To begin with,
however, we should like to point out that “transition exams” have
today been left largely up to each individual school’s discretion. Each
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school determines in which subjects to conduct exams and how to
conduct them (while allegedly taking students’ opinions into account).
Sometimes such exams are written (as large final tests) and sometimes
oral. Sometimes the problems on the exams are approved by, say, the
district mathematics supervisor; sometimes they are not. No uniform
system of requirements concerning such exams appears to exist in the
country at the present time.
What has been said about “transition exams” applies also to oral
graduation exams in geometry for grades 9 and 11 (more precisely,
it used to apply to these exams, since recently the introduction of
the USE has led to the elimination of other 11th-grade graduation
exams). In recent years, these exams have been conducted because
both schools and students have demanded them, and the assignment
sets for them have been composed by teachers themselves (previously,
their theoretical portions came from the Ministry of Education and
only the problems on them were composed in the schools). Below is an
example of one such assignment set (as many as 20–25 such assignment
sets could be composed for one exam):
1. Parallel straight lines in space. The theorem about two straight
lines that are parallel to a third straight line.
2. Distance in space. The geometric locations of points equidistant
from two points, three points, two planes.
3. A problem on the topic “Vectors in space: the scalar product of
vectors.”
Students would know in advance the topic on which a problem
would be given, but the problem itself would be revealed to them
only on the exam. The exam would be conducted by a commission,
which was usually chaired by the director or vice-principal and included
the teacher who taught the class as well as one or even two other
mathematics teachers.
Moving on to written graduation exams for grades 9 and 11, we can
say that over the last quarter-century the principles of their composition
have gone through radical transformations. Today, the USE, already
mentioned numerous times above, has become the standard exam for
11th graders, but there is little cause to expect any kind of stability in
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this area, and it is possible that what is described here as contemporary
and up-to-date will have changed by the time this book goes to press.
In the 1940s, the exam in algebra began to be composed in Moscow
and then distributed throughout the country in sealed envelopes (Karp,
2007). These envelopes were supposed to be opened one hour before
the start of the exam, but in practice their contents very often became
known beforehand. On the other hand, the exam nonetheless inevitably
possessed some kind of unpredictability — a student who really did not
know the text of the exam in advance could encounter an unfamiliar
formulation, a forgotten technique, and so on. The response to this
came in the form of so-called “open” problem books, the first of which
was a problem book for use in conducting exams in algebra at the
end of basic schools, i.e. exams covering material from grades 1 and 8
and, later, grades 1 to 9 (MP RSFSR, 1985; latest edition, Chudovsky
and Somova, 1995). The problem book included five sections, each
of which contained 100 problems, given in two versions. During the
school year, every student had to have a copy of the problem book in his
or her possession. The exam envelope contained only five numbers, one
from each section, and the problems with the corresponding numbers
in the problem book were the problems that students had to solve on
the exam (in two versions).
Such exams had their advantages and disadvantages. On occasion,
during the second half-year of ninth grade, teachers would do nothing
with their students except solving problems “from the problem book.”
Yet, it should be remarked that even this was not simple “drilling” in the
strict sense of the word, since the problem book was sufficiently varied,
and working with it, in our view, in one way or another facilitated both
review and improvement in mathematical problem solving.
This remark also applies (albeit to varying degrees) to all of the later
“open problem books” for exams in grades 9 and 11. The problem
book mentioned above was replaced, in time, with a problem book
by Kuznetsova et al. (2002), for use in standard public schools. The
assignments for ninth-grade exams in classes with an advanced course of
mathematics (gradually, the ninth-grade exam began to be conducted
on two levels — for ordinary schools and for classes with an advanced
course of mathematics) were sent in an envelope, “the old-fashioned
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