participate in social life. This development was not only, if at all,
because of the superiority of these global standards, but because
they had the backing of the dominant political and economic
players. Just as the development of a more homogeneous culture
and a more unified set of beliefs and attitudes made ruling the empire
cheaper and easier for the Romans and their collaborators, so the
adoption of empire-wide standards favoured those who operated,
whether in the political, social or economic spheres, at a trans-
regional level. The benefits for peasant farmers from the adoption
of Roman weights and measures or coins in place of local standards
were marginal at best; the benefits for merchants and for the Empire
itself were enormous.
Once we discard the assumption that Roman civilisation was
intrinsically superior to provincial culture and hence unquestion-
ably desirable, the increasing homogenisation and standardisation
of the cultures of the Empire appears as a process whose benefits
were unevenly distributed and in some cases of questionable
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ThE dynamIcs of culTural changE
127
value. ‘Network power’ could (and can) be experienced as quite as
restrictive and tyrannical as cruder forms of coercion and control, not
least because it appears to involve the free choice to accept or reject
new practices in favour of old ones. Moreover, it is more insidious
and pervasive than the overt manifestations of globalisation, such
as the imposition of Roman rule or the articulation of an ideology
of empire. Even if ‘Romanisation’ in its traditional sense remained
for the most part a veneer, largely confined to the elite, not affecting
in the least the sense of identity of the majority of provincials,
nevertheless the development of standards based on sociability
influenced and constricted individual freedom of action far more
than the constraints of formal sovereignty. This is precisely the
concern identified in Hardt and Negri’s conception of ‘empire’: it
colonises every available space, influences every discourse and is
impossible to escape without setting oneself outside normal social
interaction altogether. The limited technical resources of Roman
imperialism meant that there were always spaces within its borders
that were largely free from its influence, but the dynamic of the
system, as well as the ambitions of its ideological agenda, was to
extend its reach as far as possible into everyday life and thought.
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Envoi:
‘decline and fall’
If america is the new rome, if empire lite is the new image of empire, there is a
more troubling parallel with antiquity: overwhelming military superiority does not
translate into security. mastery of the known world does not confer peace of mind.
america has now felt the tremor of dread that the ancient world must have known
when rome was first sacked. Then and now an imperial people has awakened to the
menace of the barbarians.
1
If, as Hardt and Negri have suggested, ‘every theory of the
constitution of Empire is also a theory of its decline’, then one of
the most important reasons for this must be their dependence on
the idea of Rome as the archetypal empire. ‘Decline and fall’ is an
intrinsic element of Rome’s image in European culture, due in part
to the power of Edward Gibbon’s magisterial history.
2
The fact that
the Empire no longer exists, at least in physical terms, has been
elaborated into an enthralling and deeply satisfying narrative of
triumph and disaster, grandeur and decay, power and powerlessness,
which raises questions about the permanence and stability of all
human creations – if not even Rome could endure, what hope for
any other society? In the middle ages, of course, the answer was
simple: Rome fell because that was the divinely-ordained course of
history. It had been superseded by a greater power, a truly godly
order, which had preserved the best elements of classical culture
and set them to the task of building a kingdom of heaven rather
than earth, in confident expectation of the fulfilment of God’s plan.
The progressive questioning of Christian teleology from the
Renaissance onwards raised more complex questions about the fate
of Rome, with discussion focusing now on the natural properties of
political institutions; the Republic was taken as a powerful model
of constitutional organisation, while the example of the Empire
supported a sense that even the most powerful states were subject to
unexpected disaster. Rome offered, as always, a mirror for different
aspects of the present. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,
for example, as well as sustaining the critique of monarchy and
the advocacy of republicanism, it provided the vocabulary of
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luxuriousness and moral decay, and the defining narrative of their
effects on society, as a basis for debates about the consequences
of economic and social change.
3
Towards the end of this period,
different intellectual currents converged to transform the discourse
once again.
4
New historical skills and a more critical attitude towards
sources placed knowledge and understanding of antiquity on an
infinitely firmer foundation. The emerging disciplines of the scientific
study of society suggested new ways of interpreting the past as well
as the present. New ideas about the state of contemporary society
raised new and pressing questions about the relationship between
past and present, and the nature of historical development. The
results can be seen in the subsequent course of the debate on luxury,
with the contributions of David Hume, Adam Smith and other
writers of the Scottish Enlightenment: the term was reinterpreted,
abandoning the moral overtones of the classical texts in favour of a
positive evaluation of the role of consumption in economic growth;
ancient evidence was reinterpreted and qualified, questioning how
far Rome’s problems were really due to luxuriousness rather than,
say, to the establishment of autocracy and the loss of liberty; above
all, social and economic change was seen as progressive rather than
as a sign of decay. In this debate as in others, Rome retained a
significant role, but on very different terms; the focus of scholars
was now on the differences as much as the similarities between past
and present, with the sense that the modern era might be able to
take a different path from that indicated by historical precedent.
Modernity was increasingly seen as an unprecedented
phenomenon, free from traditional constraints and limits. Past
forms of society could no longer serve as models or examples; ‘we
are in an entirely new condition of society’, declared the French
economist Jean Simone de Sismondi, while Hegel argued that ‘each
period has such peculiar circumstances and is such an individual
situation that decisions must be made and can only be made on the
basis of the period itself’.
5
However, that did not render the past
irrelevant; rather, the study of history would reveal the dynamics of
social development and historical change, and thus the likely course
of future developments. Inevitably Rome, as the past society that
most resembled the modern era in its power and sophistication, was
the focus of most attention – even if it seemed to raise worrying
questions about the more optimistic views of the future. Parallels
were considered in particular cases for individual states, such as
the French and American republics (since their institutions were
based heavily on Roman models, they endured a constant anxiety
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130
ThE roman EmpIrE
that they too might fall into autocracy) or the British Empire. ‘Even
the forces which laid the Roman Empire low concern the modern
world very nearly, more nearly indeed than do the reasons for the
downfall of any other empire about which we have full knowledge’,
as Haverfield argued, but many writers in the ‘Greater Britain’
tradition insisted instead on the range of differences that rendered
any apparent resemblance insignificant.
6
Increasingly, however, Rome was compared not with individual
states but with modern civilisation as a whole. ‘Modernity’ was
conceived as an integrated unity, in which every facet of life shared
in and reflected its unique and unprecedented qualities (even if the
theories purporting to characterise and explain those qualities were
enormously varied and largely contradictory).
7
‘Rome’ came to be
similarly conceived; its historical fate was then understood not as
the fall of a state or the crisis of a society but as the collapse of an
entire civilisation – raising questions not just about the destiny of
individual nations but also about the entirety of modern civilisation,
and its conviction that humanity had triumphed permanently over
barbarism. Kant remarked that ‘the course which the human race
follows on the way to fulfilling its destiny seems to be subject to
incessant interruptions, with a constant risk of reverting to the
original barbarism’.
8
Most advocates of modernity proclaimed
a more optimistic view: because of the achievements of modern
science, technology, social organisation and geopolitical power, the
future would be radically different from the present, let alone the
past, and yet recognisably the same, still modern (and, as far as
the economists were concerned, still capitalist) because it would
represent the progressive development of modernity. Despite such
claims, however, modernity was still haunted by the past against
which it defined itself, and by the threat of its return.
9
Above all, it
was both haunted and fascinated by the ruins of Rome.
10
Parallels with Rome operated in a range of modes; the sense
that the future might not be as bright and shining as was generally
claimed could occasionally be a source of hope or satisfaction
as much as a source of anxiety. A belief in the limited future of
capitalism was, after all, a prerequisite for a belief in the possibility
of true social revolution; Marx interpreted the symptoms of decay in
contemporary society, exceeding (in his view) those horrors recorded
of the later Roman Empire, as a sign that an alternative future
might be coming within reach, while William Morris welcomed the
possibility of a return to a pre-industrial utopia as a relief from the
evils of industrial society.
11
Far more often, however, this prospect
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was viewed with fear or resignation, especially in the years after the
First World War, as in Oswald Spengler’s account of
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