Gwen, echoing the way adults speak in these situations, herself takes on this feature
of omission.
Similar urgency is needed in Gwen’s speech to Dee in line 9. Mom does not want
the child to “be too long.” Gwen wants to accomplish her request and convey her dis-
agreement with Dee, rather than showing solidarity with her at this point, and she
speaks as she has observed adults speak in these situations. Therefore, Gwen says
“but don’t be too long! Dinner is soon!” rather than “don’t be too long, because din-
ner is soon.” If she had used “because,” it would have conveyed continuation of a pro-
posal of Dee’s or validation of what Dee was doing. Gwen probably is not explicitly
aware of this form-function relationship but is echoing the ways an adult would speak
in such a situation.
Discussion
In conclusion, “because” seems to be used in these children’s texts to show validation
of the partner, and its absence is used to convey disagreement with the partner, as
well as urgency. Schleppegrell (1991) had suggested that “because” could operate to
create a supportive participation framework by continuing a partner turn. This study
has shown that “because” can create a supportive participation framework in three
additional ways: by supporting agreement with the partner within the speaker’s own
turn; by supporting elaboration of the partner within the speaker’s turn; and by relat-
ing a new proposal to a joint theme being constructed collaboratively in the talk (even
when the new proposals and reasons are related consecutively within the speaker’s
own turn), which in turn validates that theme.
Children seem to actively manipulate features of language to indexically create
particular stances (collaborative or authoritative/threatening floors), or at least to use
forms to echo the ways different characters speak in particular situations. Children
are not passive acquirers of language forms; they are reflexive language users. Dis-
course markers can be regarded as a type of contextualization cue that is used to cre-
ate given character voices or stances (Cook-Gumperz and Gumperz 1978; Gumperz
1994).
A final important implication concerns the ways in which the different levels of
talk implicated by discourse marker theory interact with one another. In these data we
see girls discussing a range of causal relationships, at both the action and ideational
levels. To some extent, marking seems to be independent of the domain being ac-
cessed. However, a positive, collaborative participation framework, as well as influ-
encing marking, seems to interact with these other levels of talk. A collaborative
stance toward the partner may lead a set of speakers to look for more validation of
one another’s individual proposals, as well as of their shared script—thereby leading
them to access more ideational and action-level causal relationships, as well as more
complex ones (as we saw Gwen building a complex ideational unit through her turn
to validate the treachery of Raggedy Ann). Participation frameworks and speaker
goals may affect not only the degree of marking but also the richness and range of
causal relationships that are accessed in the talk, as well as their thematic linkage into
broader, more complex units.
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