Pernilla Hallonsten Halling

lhín.sg

little

‘an animal that is small’ or ‘a small animal’

2. 
   lyóon
   

lion
nt^¯iíku

old

‘lion [that is] old’ or ‘old lion’

(47) pred (Bradley 1991: 425-426)

d^¯it^¯i

strong

t¯av^¯i ú
int I

‘I am very strong.’

48. 
    adv (Bradley 1991: 437)
    

(^¯it^¯i
(animal
lhín
little
mi)
that)
nú

quickly

t¯av^¯i
int
ch^¯itá
compl.grow
(ti)
(it.aml)

‘(The little animal) grew very quickly.’

48. 
    adv (Bradley 1991: 437)
    

y¯enó

happy

t¯av^¯i
int
ku¯n¯ahán
pot.go.home
(ti)
(it.aml)

‘(They) went home very happily.’

¹¹ In adv, some General Modifiers carry “a dummy third person prefix” (Montgomery-Anderson 2008: 548).

attr

attr, pred, and adv in Cuicatec

Function: property modification within referring expression
Form: N ST.V¹²(num¹³) ⇒ (46)

preD

Function: property predication
Form: ST.V S ⇒ (47)

aDv

Function: property modification within predicating expression
Form 1: (S) ADV V (S) ⇒ (48)
Form 2: ST.V V (S) ⇒ (49)

Level Overlaps

Root: [attr pred adv]
Lexeme: [attr pred adv]

Construction: –

Dutch (Indo-European)

48. 
    attr (Donaldson 1997: 87)
    

stout-e

naughty-attr

kinderen
child.pl

‘naughty children’

attr

attr, pred, and adv in Dutch

Function: property modification within referring expression
Form: (art) G.MOD(-e_AGR) N ⇒ (50), (8.10)

preD

Function: property predication
Form: S zijn_cop G.MOD ⇒ (7.11a)/(8.11a)

aDv

Function: property modification within predicating expression
Form: S V G.MOD ⇒ (7.11b)/(8.11b)

Level Overlaps

Root: [attr pred adv]
Lexeme: [attr pred adv]

Construction: [pred adv]

¹² I follow Bradley (1991: 425) in classifying these items as Stative Verbs, although they could also be classified as General Modifiers.

¹³ Only some Stative Verbs have singular and plural forms (Bradley 1991: 463).

Estonian (Uralic)

48. 
    attr (Metslang 2001: 448)
    

Päike
sun
sulatas
melt.3sgpst
suure

big.gen

jääpurika
icicle.gen
ära.
p.part

‘The sun melted the big icicle.’

48. 
    pred (Viitso 1998: 143)
    

Lapse-d
child-pl
on
be.3sg.prs
väike-sed.

small-pl.nom

‘The children are small.’

(53) adv (Viitso 1998: 144)

Meil
pr.pl
lähe-b
go-3sg
hästi.

well.aDv

‘We are doing well.’


attr, pred, and adv in Estonian

attr

Function: property modification within referring expression
Form: ADJ.cas N ⇒ (51)

preD

Function: property predication
Form: S olla_V ADJ-num.cas ⇒ (52), (7.26a)

aDv

Function: property modification within predicating expression
Form 1: S olla_V/V ADJ-adv ⇒ (7.26b), (53)

Form 2: S V ADJ-abl
⇒ (5.14)/(6.9)

Form 3: V ADV ⇒ (5.4)

Level Overlaps

Root: [attr pred adv]
Lexeme: [attr pred]

Construction: –

Ewe (Atlantic-Congo)

54. 
    attr (Ameka 1991: 77)
    

awu
garment
7í

white

lá
def

‘the white dress’

54. 
    attr (Ameka 1991: 91)
    

agbale
book
yéye

new

lá
def

‘the new book’

54. 
    pred (Yvonne Agbetsoamedo, p.c.)
    

awu-a
dress-def
le
be.prs
7í
white

‘The the dress is white.’

54. 
    pred (Ameka 1991: 91)
    

agbal˜e
book
lá
def
yéye

new

Nút´O
very.much

‘The book is very new.’

54. 
    pred (Ameka 1991: 75)
    

agbal˜e
book
lá
def
le
be.prs
yéye

new

‘The book is new.’

(59) adv (Ameka 1991: 43)

Kofi
K.
dzó
leave
kábá

quickly

‘Kofi left quickly’

(60) adv (Ameka 1991: 75)

devi
child
lá
def
háyá
recover
nyuié

good

‘The child recovered well.’


attr, pred, and adv in Ewe

attr

Function: property modification within referring expression
Form 1: N ADJ₁¹⁴ art ⇒ (54)
Form 2: N ADJ₂ art ⇒ (55), (8.34a), (6.37a)
Form 3: N G.MOD art ⇒ (6.36a)

¹⁴ ‘ADJ₁’ are simple Adjectives of which there are only a handful, whereas ‘ADJ₂’ (see Form 2 ) here is used for all other types of Ewe Adjectives, such as ideophonic and derived ones.

preD

Function: property predication
Form 1: S le_v ADJ₁ ⇒ (56)
Form 2: S ST.V ⇒ (57), (6.37b)
Form 3: S le_v ADJ₂(-i ) ⇒ (58), (6.37c) Form 4: S G.MOD ⇒ (6.36b)

aDv

Function: property modification within predicating expression
Form 1: S V ADV ⇒ (59)
Form 2: S le_v ADJ₂(-i ) ⇒ (6.37c) Form 3: S V ADJ₂(-i ) ⇒ (60) Form 4: S V G.MOD ⇒ (6.36c)

Level Overlaps

Root: [attr pred], [attr pred adv]
Lexeme: [attr pred adv]

Construction: [pred adv], pred/adv

Georgian (Kartvelian)

(61) attr (Hewitt 1995: 45, 536)

1. 
   mc’vane
   

green

čit’-i
bird-nom

‘the/a green bird’

2. 
   lamaz-i
   

beautiful-nom

čit’-i
bird-nom

‘the/a beautiful bird’

62. 
    pred (Hewitt 1995: 50)
    

Did-n-i

big-pl-nom

‘We are big.’
v-a’r-t
1-be-pl

62. 
    pred (Hewitt 1995: 50)
    

Kal-i mag˙al-i=a
woman-nom tall-nom=cop.3sg.prs
‘The woman is tall.’

attr, pred, and adv in Georgian

attr

Function: property modification within referring expression
Form: ADJ(-cas)¹⁵ N ⇒ (61)

preD

Function: property predication

Form 1: (S) ADJ(-num)-cas cop
Form 2: (S) ADJ-cas=a_cop

aDv

⇒ (62)
⇒ (63)

Function: property modification within predicating expression
Form 1: S ADJ-ad /-d _adv V ⇒ (8.22) Form 2: S ADJ_subset-a_adv V ⇒ –¹⁶

Level Overlaps

Root: [attr pred adv]
Lexeme: [attr pred]

Construction: –

Gooniyandi (Bunaban)

(64) adv (McGregor 1990: 154, 354)

1. 
   barnbadda
   

slowly

wardji
he.went

‘He walked slowly.’

2. 
   galjini-ngga
   

quick-erg

wajgaddi
it.throws.it
joordoo
dust

‘(Going) quickly (the car) throws up dust.’

65. 
    adv (McGregor 1990: 151)
    

mayaadaya-adda

hard-aDv fast

galjini
he.ran
giddagiddayi

‘He ran very quickly.’

¹⁵ Adjectives are very similar to Nouns in Georgian, see e.g. Cherchi (1999: 8–9).

¹⁶ There is no example with context for Form 2, but this concerns a few Adverbs where the final d is lost, such as čkar-a ‘quickly’ and nel-a ‘slowly’ (Hewitt 1995: 65).

attr

attr, pred, and adv in Gooniyandi

Function: property modification within referring expression
Form 1: N/S N_prop ⇒ (6.15a), (6.16), (7.6)
Form 2: N_prop N ⇒ (6.15b)/(7.7)

preD

Function: property predication
Form: N/S N_prop(=cli) ⇒ (6.16), (7.5)

aDv

Function: property modification within predicating expression

Form 1: ADV(-cas) V
Form 2: X-wa/-wadda_advz¹⁷

Level Overlaps

Root: [attr pred]
Lexeme: [attr pred]
Construction: [attr pred]
⇒ (64)
V ⇒ (65)

Guaraní (Tupian)

65. 
    attr (Gregores & Suárez 1967: 148)
    

k1sé
knife
p1ahú

new

‘a new knife’

65. 
    pred (Gregores & Suárez 1967: 172, 107)
    

sé-rakú
1-warm
‘I am warm.’

attr

attr, pred, and adv in Guaraní

Function: property modification within predicating expression
Form: N ST.V ⇒ (66), (5.7a)

preD

Function: property predication
Form: per-ST.V (S) ⇒ (67), (5.7b)

¹⁷ The two suffixes form Adverbials from Nouns, Verbs, and Adverbs (McGregor 1990: 246), here denoted as ‘X’.

Form: S ADV V ⇒ (5.8)

Level Overlaps

Root: [attr pred]
Lexeme: [attr pred]

Construction: –

Hdi (Afro-Asiatic)

65. 
    attr (Frajzyngier & Shay 2002: 71)
    

xva´
work
kwítìk

little

‘small work’

65. 
    attr (Frajzyngier & Shay 2002: 74-75)
    

gù-á
goat-gen
ngrá

black

‘a black goat’

65. 
    pred (Frajzyngier & Shay 2002: 347)
    

kítíkw

small

mbítsa´
Mbitsa

‘Mbitsa is small.’

65. 
    pred (Frajzyngier & Shay 2002: 349)
    

ka`
prep