researcher has only chosen to discuss data that supports his thesis that the
‘lads’ construct a vigorous male working-class identity for themselves.
Ethnographic research in general is always open to the criticism of subjec-
tivity, a charge intensified when the observer is drawn to a subculture
because of previous (or current) involvement and empathy. In such cases
ethnographic reports can recall the old description of sports journalists as
‘fans with typewriters’.
A further theoretical issue is the status accorded in ethnography to
empirical evidence and its interpretation. Hebdige’s influential
Subculture:
The Meaning of Style
(1979: 116–17) notoriously interprets punks’ use of the
swastika as an empty symbol designed only to shock, divorced from its
Nazi associations. Although he had obviously observed this subculture’s
use of the swastika, and notes a newspaper report on one punk’s reason for
its use, he obviously did not ask any young people why they adopted it. His
confidence in his authority as a semiotician, that is, as an expert in interpret-
ing visual signs, allows him to dispense with the strategy of checking his
own interpretation against that of a subcultural member. However, it
might fairly be asked whether the reasons given by punks as to why they
adopted this symbol should be any more authoritative than Hebdige’s. The
key issue, ultimately, is that the strength of ethnography is in its detailed
observation and the richness of its data, but data is not itself an explanation.
At some point, someone has to organise the data according to a theory, and
a simple acceptance of the accounts of those observed can be read as an
avoidance of academic responsibility by the researcher.
The question remains, however, on what authority and by what criteria
the ethnographic researcher comes to his or her conclusions and interpreta-
tions. As Turner (1990: 178) warns: ‘When we read ethnographic studies,
there is always a point at which we need to ask who is speaking, and for
whom.’ Lecompte and Goetz identify some steps that can be taken to
safeguard the reliability of ethnographic studies, by making explicit ‘the
status of the researcher, the choice of informants, the social situations and
conditions, the analytical constructs and premises, and the methods of data
collection and analysis’ (cited in Nunan, 1992: 59–64). In short, reliable
ethnographic research should clearly state the following:
(a) what is the relationship of the researcher to the community being
described? Is s/he, for example, a visiting observer, a participant-
observer, a working
member of the community, etc.?
(b) why were the informants chosen? If they are considered typical of
some subcultural grouping, on what grounds are they to be considered
representative? If they are chosen as random samples of a culture, what
procedures were used to select them?
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(c) what were the social situation and conditions pertaining to the
research? Details of the class, ethnicity, gender, educational back-
ground, etc., of informants need to be clearly stated.
(d) what were the methods of analysis? Were multiple observers used
to limit individual subjectivity? Was the kind of behaviour observed
easy to agree upon (i.e. does it demand inferencing on the part of the
observer?) For example, it would be easy to agree whether a learner
volunteered answers in class or not. It would be less easy to agree that a
relatively quiet student ‘lacked interest’ or ‘showed signs of boredom’.
(e) what were the methods of data analysis and collection? Were obser-
vation schedules used to give consistency in the description of routine
behaviours? Was behaviour recorded in sound or vision, and/or
written down in field notes? If the latter, were the field notes written
during
the event,
immediately afterwards, or some time later?
Even if ethnographic research can probably never be satisfactorily replicated –
too many factors are unique to each piece of research – the findings and con-
clusions of good ethnographic research can be persuasive if the above factors
are made explicit. The safeguards suggested by Lecompte and Goetz are
useful to bear in mind when reading ethnographic research in preparation for
a class project, and also when preparing learners to undertake ethnographic
projects of their own. Again, it is unlikely that most learners will undertake an
ethnographic project on the scale of a professional researcher; however,
similar critical criteria can guide the ‘practical’ or ‘amateur’ ethnographer,
when he or she comes to reflect on what has been learned.
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