Online Resources
“Hyperphysics” is a website of the Department of Physics and Astronomy at
Georgia University. It is a wonderful resource for relating physical concepts
and contains much useful information about sound and acoustics.
<
http://
hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hframe.html
>
5.4 Acoustic Oscillations
75
“Acoustics and Vibration Animations” is a collection of great simulations of
moving, standing, and transmitted waves put together by Dan Russell, Pro-
fessor of Applied Physics at Kettering University.
<
http://paws.kettering.edu/
∼
drussell/demos.html
>
A short essay entitled simply “Sound Waves” by Prof. J. B. Calvert provides a
concise summary of many acoustic principles.
<
http://mysite.du.edu/
∼
jcalvert/
waves/soundwav.htm
>
Tom Irvine runs a resource on acoustics with links and tutorials at his “vibra-
tion data” site.
<
http://vibrationdata.com
>
Angelo Farina has published many excellent papers on environmental acoustics.
<
http://pcfarina.eng.unipr.it
>
Ian Drumm wrote a “Guide to decibels and how to use them”. Maintained
at Salford University.
<
http://www.acoustics.salford.ac.uk/acoustics info/
decibels
>
6
Psychoacoustics
SECTION 6.1
Perceiving Sounds
Psychoacoustics relates the measurable physical properties of waves, like ampli-
tude and frequency, to the perception of sound and subjective phenomena, like
loudness and pitch. It is the psychology part of sound. Although some of this
chapter is technical, as much is human, emotive, and cultural. All these aspects
must be combined in sound design to get the big picture. Understanding psy-
choacoustics and processes like streaming, categorisation, and masking make
it easier for us to define the character of a sound in an efficient way. Sound
cognition can be seen as layers, moving from hearing towards conscious under-
standing. Let’s start at the lowest level in this scheme, which is physical, and
properly speaking is a subset of psychoacoustics called
physioacoustics
.
Waves come from real physical vibrating objects like a bell or a loudspeaker,
but they are not yet sounds. As a matter of definition, rather than a Zen puz-
zle, sounds are a perceptual experience, and without minds to experience them
there are only vibrating waves. Waves cause your eardrum to vibrate and your
brain to perceive a sensation. The sensation is not actually limited to the ears.
We can feel low-frequency sounds between 1Hz and 20Hz in various parts of the
body. Although we sometimes neglect to call these frequencies “sound” they
are part of same physical phenomenon and experience. Occasionally we may
see visual manifestations of sound. Shaking windows or sand on drum skins can
reveal sound to our eyes. At high intensities, such as in explosions, sound can
knock down or shatter objects.
Ears
It is customary to show a diagram of the ear at this point. Let us break with
tradition since you probably remember from biology classes how the ears work.
There is the outer part, the familiar shape of an ear, the
pinna
,
meatus
, and
lobes
. In humans the pinna acts partly as an amplifier and partly as a filter
used for locating sounds. The meatus, while primarily serving to connect and
separate the outer and inner ear, also serves as a resonant cavity, around 2kHz,
which is useful for amplifying speech. Exactly what the ear lobes do isn’t under-
stood, but they seem to behave usefully as dampers on the pinna at certain
frequencies and may have a role in our sense of balance. The eardrum or
tym-
panic membrane
acts as the main transducer to convert air pressure waves into
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