I
ndividual factors: age and anxiety;
N
egotiation factors: interaction and interpretation;
T
actical factors: learning strategies and communication strategies;
A
ffective factors: attitudes and motivation;
K
nowledge factors: language knowledge and metalanguage knowledge;
E
nvironmental factors: social context and educational context.
30
CHAPTER 2
These factors can be classified into two broad categories:
learner internal
and
learner external
factors. By this categorization, I do not suggest a dichoto-
mous relationship between the two categories; rather, I look at them as a
continuum as represented in Fig. 2.4. In the rest of this section, I briefly
sketch the facilitating role played by each of these intake factors in develop-
ing the learner’s L2 knowledge/ability. I do so by drawing upon currently
available theoretical as well as empirical knowledge. Because of the vast
body of information available in the literature, what follows cannot be more
than a brief summary.
2.3.1. Individual Factors
Several individual factors have been studied in order to assess their role in
L2 development. They include age, anxiety, empathy, extroversion, intro-
LEARNING: FACTORS AND PROCESSES
31
FIG. 2.4.
Intake factors continuum.
version, and risk-taking. Of these variables, age and anxiety appear to play a
relatively greater role than the others.
2.3.1.1. Age.
It is generally believed that the age at which learners be-
gin to learn a second language influences their ultimate attainment in lan-
guage knowledge/ability. In 1967, Lenneberg proposed a critical period
hypothesis (CPH), arguing that languages are best learned before puberty,
after which everyone faces certain constraints in language development. In
a comprehensive review of the SLA research based on this hypothesis,
Scovel (2001) found three different strands of thought. The first strand
holds that there is a critical period but it is confined only to foreign accents.
Citing evidence that demonstrates a massive mismatch between the L2
learners’ excellent lexicogrammatical and their deficient phonological
abilities, researchers claim that, if L2 learners begin their language learn-
ing after about the age of 12, they will end up with some degree of foreign
accent. The reason is that L2 phonological production is presumably the
only aspect of language performance that has a neuromuscular basis. The
second strand is that there is a critical period, not only for accents, but also
for grammar. Scovel finds very little evidence to support this claim. The
third strand is that there is no critical period, not even for pronunciation.
There are studies that suggest that, given adequate phonetic training and
proper conditions for learning, L2 learners can actually acquire sufficient
phonological competence to pass for native speakers. But such cases are
rare.
Those in favor of the “younger is better” case (e.g., Krashen, 1981) ar-
gued that L2 development by children and adults might actually involve dif-
ferent processes; the former utilizing innate properties of language acquisi-
tion as in L1 acquisition, the latter employing general problem-solving
abilities, and thus accounting for the differential effect of age. But, there
are others who suggest that “older is better” because older learners have
cognitive and literacy skills that tend to enhance their L2 development
(McLaughlin 1987; Snow 1983). They suggest that there are contexts in
which teenagers and adults not only reach nativelike proficiency, but they
also progress more rapidly and perform with greater accuracy in the early
stages of learning than do their younger counterparts.
A balanced approach suggests a
sensitive
rather than a
critical
period for
L2 development (Lamendella, 1977; Singleton, 1989). As Hyltenstam and
Abrahamsson (2003) pointed out in a recent review, in the
critical
period
formulation, “maturation is thought to take place and come to an end
within an early phase of the life span, abruptly set off from the rest at a spe-
cific age (puberty or earlier)” (p. 556). But, in the
sensitive
period formula-
tion, “the sensitivity does not disappear at a fixed point; instead it is thought
to fade away over a longer period of time, perhaps covering later child-
32
CHAPTER 2
hood, puberty and adolescence” (p. 556). In other words, the
critical
period
represents a well-defined “window of opportunity,” whereas the
sensitive
pe-
riod represents “a progressive inefficiency of the organism.” Such a sugges-
tion acknowledges that certain language skills are acquired more easily at
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