Summary
10.57
Now, the expression for
i in the time range 0
+
≤
t
≤
0.5
-
can be found as below.
i t
Ae t
i
A
.
.
A
i t
( )
.
( )
.
( )
=
+
=
∴ +
=
= −
∴
=
−
+
10
1 5
0
0 5
1 5 0 5
1
with
A
and
−−
+
≤ ≤
∴
=
=
−
+
−
−
e t
t
v t
di
dt
e t
10
10
1 5
0 5
0 75
7 5
.
.
( )
.
.
A for 0
V for 0
++
−
≤ ≤
t
0 5
.
(10.9-1)
At
t
=
0.5s, the input voltage goes to zero. A new transient in a source-free circuit starts at
t
=
0.5
+
.
Since there is no impulse voltage involved in the circuit, the inductor current will remain continuous
between 0.5
-
and 0.5
+
.
The value at 0.5
-
can be found by evaluating
i(
t)
at that instant using the
expression for
i(
t) in Eqn. 10.9-1. Further, in a source-free circuit there is no forced response term.
i
e
i t
e
t
t
v
( . )
.
.
( )
.
)
.
.
(
.
0 5
1 5 1 5
1 5
0 5
10 0 5
10
0 5
= −
+
≈
∴
=
−
≥
∴
− ×
−
+
A
A for
(( )
.
.
)
.
(
.
t
di
dt
e
t
t
=
= −
−
≥
−
+
0 75
11 25
0 5
10
0 5
V for
(10.9-2)
The plots of inductor current and voltage across inductor are given in Fig. 10.9-13.
0.1 0.2
0.2
0.3 0.4
0.4
0.5 0.6
0.6
0.7
Time (s)
0.8
0.8
1.2
1.4
1.6
1
0.9
0.2
– 2
2
4
6
8
V
[V]
i
[A]
– 4
– 6
– 8
–10
–12
0.4
0.6
Time (s)
0.8
Fig. 10.9-13
Inductor current and voltage in Example: 10.9-4
10.10
Summary
• Circuits containing energy storage elements have memory in time-domain. They are described
by linear ordinary differential equations with constant coefficients. We need to know the forcing
function from some time instant onwards along with initial conditions in the circuit specified at
that instant to solve such differential equations.
• We focussed on series
RL circuit in this chapter.
RL circuit is described by a first-order linear
differential equation. The past history of inductor is contained in a single initial condition
specification in an
RL circuit.
10.58
First-Order
RL
Circuits
• The solution of the differential equation describing the inductor current in an
RL circuit contains
two terms – the complementary function and particular integral. Complementary function is the
solution of differential equation with zero forcing function. Particular integral is the solution due
to the input function and is defined in the domain of input function. The total solution is obtained
by adding these two. The complementary function has arbitrary amplitude that should be fixed by
ensuring that the
total solution complies with the specified initial condition.
•
The circuit variables in the RL circuit will contain two response components
-
transient
response (also called
natural response) and
forced response.
Natural response is the way in
which the inertia in the circuit reacts to forcing function’s command to change. Complementary
solution gives the
natural response and particular integral gives the
forced response in a
circuit.
• The nature of
natural response of a linear time-invariant circuit is
independent of the type or
magnitude of forcing function and depends only on circuit parameters and nature of interconnections.
Natural response in
RL circuit is exponential of the form
A e
-
t
/
t
where
t
=
L/R is defined as time
constant of the circuit.
A is to be fixed for compliance with initial condition.
• The initial current in an
RL circuit at
t
=
0
-
and
t
=
0
+
are the same if the circuit does not contain
impulse sources and it cannot support impulse voltages.
• Step response of a circuit is its response when unit step input is applied. In the case of an
RL
circuit,
step response is a rising exponential, approaching a steady-state value asymptotically as
t
→
∞
. The
step response never gets done. However, it may be considered to be over within 5 time
constants for practical purposes.
• Time constant can be understood as the additional time required from the current instant for the
step response to reach the final value, assuming that the rate of rise of response is held constant at
its current value from that instant onwards.
• Free response of an
RL circuit is its response when input is zero and there is some initial energy
trapped in the inductor. It will contain only
natural response terms. The inductor current in this
case falls exponentially towards zero.
• If all the
transient response terms are of vanishing nature, the only remaining response in the
long run will be the
forced response component. Then, the
forced response component is termed
as the
steady-state response provided there are constant features describing the forcing function.
Three kinds of steady-state are usually studied in circuits – DC steady-state, AC steady-state and
periodic steady-state. Inductors can be replaced by short-circuits for DC steady-state analysis. AC
steady-state analysis can be carried out using phasor analysis.
• Impulse response of a circuit is its response when a unit impulse input is applied to it.
Impulse
response of circuits will contain only
natural response terms.
• The response due to initial energy and the response due to
application of impulse are
indistinguishable in an
RL circuit and hence they can be replaced for each other. An initial current
of
I
0
in an inductor of value
L can be replaced by zero initial condition with a voltage source
LI
0
d
(
t)
connected
in series with the inductor.
• Step response and
ramp response in an
RL circuit can be obtained by integrating its
impulse
response successively.
•
Zero-input response of a circuit is its response when there is no input but there is initial energy.
It will contain only natural response terms.
Zero-state response is the response when the circuit is
initially at rest (zero initial conditions) and input is applied. It will contain both
natural response
terms and
forced response terms. The
total response is given by sum of zero-input response and
zero-state response.
Problems
10.59
• Forced response (and hence
steady-state response) obeys superposition principle with respect
to input source functions. But
transient response and
total response do not obey superposition
principle
-
neither with respect to initial conditions nor with respect to input source functions.
However,
zero-input response obeys superposition principle with respect to initial conditions and
zero-state response obeys superposition principle with respect to input source functions.
• Total response in single-inductor, multi-resistor circuits can be found with the help of superposition
principle and Thevenin’s theorem by evaluating
zero-input response for the entire circuit and
zero-
state response for each source separately.
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