example: 6.4-1
The periodic 50Hz voltage waveform applied across a
5
W
resistor is shown in Fig. 6.4-1. (i) Find the average
power delivered to the load. (ii) Find the DC voltage
that will deliver the same average power. (iii) Find
the amplitude of a 50 Hz sinusoidal voltage that will
deliver the same average power.
Solution
(i) The power waveform will be described by the
following equation for the first period:
p t
t
t
t
t
( )
=
(
)
≤ ≤
−
(
)
< ≤
2000 200
0
5
2000 2 200
5
10
2
2
for
ms
for ms
ms
t
(ms)
v
(
t
)
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
100
50
–50
–100
Fig. 6.4-1
Applied voltage waveform
in Example 6.4-1
6.22
Power and Energy in Periodic Waveforms
Energy delivered in one cycle of p( t)
=
The area under p( t) over one cycle (10ms) of p( t)
=
2
×
area under p( t) for 0 to 5ms interval
=
×
= × ×
×
÷ =
∫
2
8 10
2 8 10
0 005
3 6 67
7
0
0 005
2
7
3
.
.
.
t dt
J
Therefore, Cycle Average Power
=
6.67 J/0.01 s
=
667 W
Therefore, P
av
=
667 W
(ii) The required DC voltage V is such that V
2
/5
=
667. Therefore, V
=
57.74 V
(iii) Let v( t)
=
V
m
sin 100
p
t. Then, i( t)
=
0.2 V
m
sin 100
p
t and p( t)
=
0.2 V
m
2
sin
2
w
t W. Therefore,
cycle average power
=
0.2 V
m
2
÷
2
=
0.1 V
m
2
. This has to be 667 W. Therefore, the required
amplitude of sinusoidal voltage is V
m
=
81.67 V.
example: 6.4-2
A 12V battery delivers power to a power electronic system
through its internal resistance of 0.05
W
as shown in Fig. 6.4-2.
The figure also shows that the current drawn by the load is a
pulsed current with period of T
=
1 ms. The load draws the
current in such a way that the average value of current is kept
constant at 10 A while d and I vary under different operating
conditions. Calculate the average power delivered by the source,
average power delivered to load and efficiency for (i) I
=
100 A
(ii) I
=
40 A, (iii) I
=
12 A. and (iv) I
=
10 A.
Solution
Since the average value of i( t) is kept constant, Id must be
constant.
Average power delivered by the source is
P
i t dt
I dt
Id
s
d
=
×
=
=
=
∫
∫
1
0 001
12
1000
12
12
0
0 001
0
0 001
.
( )
.
.
watts
120 W
W.
This value is independent of I and
d as long as the average value of current is kept at 10 A. The power delivered by a constant voltage
source is equal to product of source voltage and the cycle average value of current.
Average power dissipated in the internal resistance, P
R
, is
P
i t
dt
I dt
R
d
=
×
[ ]
=
×
=
∫
∫
1
0 001
0 05
1
0 001
0 05
0 0
2
0
0 001
2
0
0 001
.
.
( )
.
.
.
.
.
55
0 05 10
0 5
2
I d
I
I
=
× × =
.
.
W
We have used the fact that Id
=
10 A in the last step.
(i) I
=
100 A. Therefore, d
=
10/100
=
0.1.
P
R
=
0.5
×
100
=
50 W., P
S
=
100 W,
\
Load power, P
L
=
100 – 50
=
50 W
Efficiency
=
50%
(ii) I
=
40 A. Therefore, d
=
10/40
=
0.25
P
R
=
0.5
×
40
=
20 W. P
S
=
100 W,
\
Load power, P
L
=
100 – 20
=
80 W
Efficiency
=
80%
i
(
t
)
i
(
t
)
12 V
0.05
Ω
A Power-
Electronic
System
d
T
1
T
(1+d)
T
(2+d)
T
t
(A)
I
2
T
R
+
–
Fig. 6.4-2
Circuit and
waveform for
Example 6.4-2
Average Power in Periodic Waveforms
6.23
(iii) I
=
12 A. Therefore, d
=
10/12
=
0.833
P
R
=
0.5
×
12
=
6 W. P
S
=
100 W,
\
Load power, P
L
=
100 – 6
=
94 W
Efficiency
=
94%
(iv) I
=
10 A. Therefore, d
=
10/10
=
1, i( t) becomes a constant current of 10 A.
P
R
=
0.5
×
10
=
5 W. P
S
=
100 W,
\
Load power, P
L
=
100 – 5
=
95 W
Efficiency
=
95%
example: 6.4-3
A DC voltage source of V V delivers a current i( t) to an external load through its internal resistance
of R
W
. Show that, among the infinite possible periodic waveforms for i( t) with the same value
of cycle average, i( t)
=
constant is the waveform that results in minimum loss and maximum
efficiency.
Solution
Let I be the cycle average value of a periodic i( t). Then i( t) can be expressed as a constant plus a pure
alternating component as i( t)
=
I
+
i
ac
( t), where i
ac
( t) is bipolar and has equal areas under positive
half-cycle and negative half-cycle. Let P
S
be the average power delivered by the source, P
L
be the
average power delivered to the load and P
R
be the average power dissipated in R. Average powers
are equal to corresponding cycle average powers if i( t) lasts for a long time compared to its period.
Then,
P
T
V I i t dt
T
S
ac
=
+
∫
1
0
[
( )]
, where T is the period of i
ac
( t). The cycle average value of a pure
alternating waveform with equal magnitude areas under its positive and negative half-cycles will be
zero. Therefore, P
S
=
VI W.
P
T
R I i t
dt
T
RI dt
T
RIi t dt
T
R i
T
T
T
R
ac
ac
ac
=
+
=
+
+
∫
∫
∫
1
1
1
2
1
2
0
2
0
0
(
( ))
( )
( (( ))
t
dt
T
2
0
∫
Since the instantaneous power in R contains a term proportional to i
ac
( t), its basic period is T and
not 0.5 T. This is why the integration in the above step is from 0 to T. The second integral goes to zero
since cycle average of a pure alternating component is zero.
∴
=
+
∫
∫
P
T
RI dt
T
R i t
dt
T
T
R
ac
1
1
2
0
2
0
( ( ))
The quantity [ i
ac
( t)]
2
is always positive and hence the second integral in the previous equation will
be positive-valued. Therefore,
P
T
RI dt
T
R
≥
∫
1
2
0
with the equality sign applicable only when i
ac
( t)
=
0 for all t
-
i.e., only when i( t)
=
I,
a constant.
Therefore, for a given amount of average current drawn from a DC source, the power loss in the
internal resistance and connecting link resistance will be a minimum when the energy is drawn at a
constant rate – i.e., power delivered is kept constant by keeping current constant.
6.24
Power and Energy in Periodic Waveforms
The optimum way to draw power from a DC source is by drawing a DC current. Similarly,
the optimum way to charge a battery is by delivering a constant current into it. No
other current waveform is as energy efficient as the DC current waveform when drawing
power from a DC voltage source or delivering power to it.
example: 6.4-4
An AC voltage source ( i.e., a sinusoidal source) v( t)
=
325 sin100
p
t V delivers 1 kW of average power
to a load through a resistance of 5
W
. This resistance is the sum of the internal resistance of the source
and the resistance of cable connecting the load to the source. Assume that the load draws a current
i( t)
=
I
m
sin(100
p
t
+
q
) and that I
m
and
q
can be varied keeping the power delivered by the source at 1
kW itself. Find the amplitude of current, power dissipated in the series resistance and the efficiency of
power transfer when (i)
q
=
-
80
°
(ii)
q
=
45
°
(iii)
q
=
-
30
°
and (iv)
q
=
0
°
.
Solution
Let v( t)
=
V
m
sin
w
t and i( t)
=
I
m
sin (
w
t
+
q
). Then the average power delivered by the source
=
V I
m m
2
cos
q
W. (We have derived this many times in earlier sections.). The average power delivered
depends on magnitude of phase difference between voltage and current waveforms. But it does not
depend on the sign of phase difference.
The power delivered by the source is kept constant at 1000 W in this example. Therefore, I
m
cos
q
=
1000/325
=
3.077 A.
Let P
R
be the average power dissipated in the resistor. Then,
P
T
R i t
dt
RI
t
dt
RI
T
R
m
m
=
=
+
=
−
∫
∫
∫
2
1
2
2
0
0 5
2
0
2
2
0
[ ( )]
sin (
)
.
w
p
w
q
w
p
p
w
p
w
11
2
2
2
2
2
cos(
)
w
q
t
dt
RI
+
=
m
watts
But I
m
=
3.077/cos
q
. Therefore, P
R
=
4.734 R/cos
2
q
. Now we evaluate the numbers for the various
cases:
(i)
q
=
-
80
°
. Then, cos
q
=
0.1736,
\
I
m
=
3.077/0.1736
=
17.72 A,
\
P
R
=
4.734
×
5/0.1736
2
=
785.4 W, P
S
=
1000 W,
\
P
L
=
214.6 W and efficiency
=
21.46 %.
(ii)
q
=
45
°
. Then, cos
q
=
0.707,
\
I
m
=
3.077/0.707
=
4.35 A,
\
P
R
=
4.734
×
5/0.707
2
=
47.3 W,
P
S
=
1000 W,
\
P
L
=
952.7 W and efficiency
=
95.27 %.
(iii)
q
=
-
30
°
. Then, cos
q
=
0.866,
\
I
m
=
3.077/0.1736
=
3.55 A,
\
P
R
=
4.734
×
5/0.866
2
=
31.6 W, P
S
=
1000 W,
\
P
L
=
968.4 W and efficiency
=
96.84 %.
(iv)
q
=
0
°
. Then, cos
q
=
1,
\
I
m
=
3.077 A,
\
P
R
=
4.734
×
5/1
2
=
23.7 W, P
S
=
1000 W,
\
P
L
=
976.3 W and efficiency
=
97.63 %.
Increasing magnitude of phase difference between voltage and current makes power transfer to the
load highly inefficient.
Effective Value (RMS Value) of Periodic Waveforms
6.25
example: 6.4-5
Show that the fixed amount of average power delivered by a sinusoidal voltage source through its
internal resistance and connecting link resistance to a load will reach the load with minimum loss and
maximum efficiency when the current drawn by the load has zero phase difference with respect to the
source voltage.
Solution
Let v( t)
=
V
m
sin
w
t and i( t)
=
I
m
sin (
w
t
+
q
). Let the total series resistance in the path be R. Then
the average power delivered by the source
=
V I
m m
2
cos
q
W. The average power dissipated in R is
0.5 RI
m
2
W (see Example 6.4-4).
But the power delivered by the source is stated to be fixed. Let this fixed value be P W. Then 0.5
V
m
I
m
cos
q
=
P. Therefore, I
m
=
2 P/( V
m
cos
q
). Therefore, the average power loss in R is
P
RI
RP
V
R
m
m
=
=
0 5
2
2
2
2
2
.
cos
q
.
The minimum of this loss takes place when cos
2
q
is a maximum
-
i.e.,
q
=
0
°
or 180
°
.
q
=
180
°
is
relevant when the load is delivering power to source.
Therefore, when a sinusoidal voltage source is delivering power to load, a given amount of
source power is transferred to load with minimum losses and maximum efficiency when
the load draws current from source at zero phase difference at the source terminal.
This fact has great significance in Electrical Power Distribution systems and Electricity tariff
structure.
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