6.28
Power and Energy
in Periodic Waveforms
Solution
v(
t) has a non-zero cycle average value. Therefore it can be written as
V
cav
+
v
ac
(
t), where
v
ac
(
t) is a
pure alternating waveform with zero cycle average. Using the result we arrived at in Example 6.5-1,
V
V
V
V
V
V
rms
cav
ac rms
ac rms
rms
cav
2
2
2
2
2
2
=
+
∴
=
−
Now,
v
1
(
t)
=
V
+
v(
t)
=
V
+
V
cav
+
v
ac
(
t).
Using the result from Example 6.5-1 again,
V
V V
V
1rms
cav
ac rms
2
2
2
=
+
+
(
)
Substituting for
V
ac
rms
2
,
V
V V
V
V
V
VV
V
V
V
V
1rms
cav
rms
cav
cav
rms
1rms
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
=
+
+
−
=
+
+
∴
=
+
(
)
(
)
V
V
V
cav
rms
+
2
The cycle average of
v
1
(
t)
=
V
cav
+
V
example: 6.5-3
Find the rms value of a symmetric square wave of
±
10 V and 50 Hz frequency.
Solution
When a symmetric square wave of amplitude
V is squared, the resulting waveform is the same as
squaring a DC voltage of
V V. Therefore, rms value of a symmetric
square wave is same as the
amplitude of the wave. Hence, the rms value of square wave voltage in this example is 10 V.
example: 6.5-4
Find the rms value, half-cycle value, crest factor and form factor for a symmetric triangular waveform
shown in Fig. 6.5-1.
v
(
t
)
V
p
–
V
p
0.25
T
0.5
T
0.75
T
T
t
Fig. 6.5-1
Symmetric triangle waveform for Example 6.5-4
Solution
Due to symmetry, the squared waveform needs to be integrated only from 0 to 0.25
T. The integral for
0 to
T range is four times this value.
Effective Value (RMS Value) of Periodic Waveforms
6.29
V
T
V t
T
dt
V
T
T
V
T
rms
p
p
p
V
=
=
×
(
)
=
∫
4
4
64
3
0 25
3
2
0
0 25
2
3
3
.
.
V
T
v t dt
T
V t
T
dt
V
T
T
caav
p
p
V
=
= ×
=
∫
∫
2
2
2
4
2
0
0 5
0
0 25
( )
.
.
∴
=
=
=
=
=
=
Form factor
Crest factor
p
p
p
p
V
V
V
V
3
2
2
3
1 1547
3
3 1 7
.
. 332
example: 6.5-5
Find an expression for rms value of the periodic pulse train shown in Fig. 6.5-2.
v
(
t
)
t
T
V
p
2
–
T
2
t
2
–
t
2
Fig. 6.5-2
Periodic waveform for Example 6.5-5
Solution
V
T
v t
dt
T
V
dt
V
T
T
T
rms
p
p
V
=
[ ]
=
=
−
−
∫
∫
1
1
2
0 5
0 5
2
0 5
0 5
( )
.
.
.
.
t
t
t
Note the limits of integration.
example: 6.5-6
Let
v(
t)
=
V
m
sin
w
t V. A new voltage waveform is generated from this waveform by a process called
half-wave rectification, which is represented
mathematically as
v t
v t
v t
v t
r
( )
( )
( )
( )
=
<
≥
0
0
0
if
if
.
Find the rms value and cycle average value of
v
r
(
t).
6.30
Power and Energy in Periodic Waveforms
Solution
The area under squared
v
r
(
t) over one
T will be half the area under squared
v(
t) since one half-cycle is
missing in
v
r
(
t). Therefore, rms value of
v
r
(
t) will be
1
2
times the rms value of
v(
t). Therefore, rms
value of
v
r
(
t)
=
0.5
V
m
V.
Half-cycle average of
v(
t) is 2
V
m
/
p
. Therefore,
half-cycle area
=
2
2
V
T
m
p
×
=
V
m
T/
p
. This area
becomes the full cycle area in
v
r
(
t) since second half cycle is zero-valued. Therefore, cycle average of
v
r
(
t)
=
V
m
T/
p
÷
T
=
V
m
/
p
V.
6.6
the PoWer SuPerPoSItIon PrIncIPle
Current variables and voltage variables in a
linear electric circuit obey the Superposition Theorem.
However, instantaneous power in a linear circuit does not follow superposition principle. Consider a
circuit driven by two sources
v
S1
(
t) and
v
S2
(
t) and let the corresponding response components for the
voltage across a particular element be
v
11
(
t) and
v
12
(
t). The corresponding response components of
current through that element are
i
11
(
t) and
i
12
(
t) as per the passive sign convention. Then,
The instantaneous power delivered to the element when
v
S1
(
t)
is acting alone,
p
1
(
t)
=
v
11
(
t)
i
11
(
t)
The instantaneous power delivered to the element when
v
S2
(
t) is acting alone,
p
2
(
t)
=
v
12
(
t)
i
12
(
t)
The instantaneous power delivered to the element when
v
S1
(
t) and
v
S2
(
t)
are acting together,
p(
t)
=
[
v
11
(
t)
+
v
12
(
t)][
i
11
(
t)
+
i
12
(
t)]
=
v
11
(
t)
i
11
(
t)
+
v
12
(
t)
i
12
(
t)
+
[
v
11
(
t)
i
12
(
t)
+
v
12
(
t)
i
11
(
t)]
=
p
1
(
t)
+
p
2
(
t)
+
Cross Power Terms
p(
t) should have been equal to
p
1
(
t)
+
p
2
(
t) if instantaneous power obeys superposition principle.
Therefore, instantaneous power does not follow superposition principle in a linear circuit. This
conclusion is general in nature and there are no exceptions.
However, there are exceptions to this rule when it comes to
average power. Let us confine to the
case of periodic waveforms that are applied to circuits for sufficient duration such that average power
can be taken as cyclic average power. Let the average power delivered to the element in question when
v
S1
(
t) is acting alone be
P
1
and the corresponding value when
v
S2
(
t) is acting alone be
P
2
. We assume
that
v
S1
(
t) and
v
S2
(
t) have a least common period of
T s. This common period need not be the period
of any one of them. For instance, let the period of
v
S1
(
t) be 1 sec and that of
v
S2
(
t) be 1.25 s. Then the
value of
T will be 5 s since there will be integer number of cycles of both in a 5 s period. Five seconds
is the lowest interval that will contain integer number of cycles of both. Cyclic average power can be
found by integrating over multiple cycles provided the averaging is done over the same number of
cycle periods. Therefore, taking
T as the integration interval is permitted in the evaluation of
P
1
and
P
2
.
P
T
v t i t dt
P
T
v t i t dt
T
T
1
11
11
0
2
12
12
0
1
1
=
=
∫
∫
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
The average power delivered to the element when both sources are acting together,
P, is given by
The Power
Superposition Principle
6.31
P
T
v t
v t i t
i t dt
T
v t i t
T
T
=
+
+
=
+
∫
1
1
11
12
11
0
12
11
11
0
[
( )
( )][ ( )
( )]
[
( ) ( )
∫∫
+
+
= +
+
v t i t
v t i t
v t i t dt
P
P
T
v t
12
12
12
11
11
12
1
2
12
1
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )]
( )
ii t dt
T
v t i t dt
T
T
11
0
11
12
0
1
( )
( ) ( )
∫
∫
+
(6.6-1)
Hence, in general, average power does not follow superposition principle. However, unlike the
case of instantaneous power, the cross power terms in the average power can go to zero under special
conditions.
Consider a case where
v
S1
(
t) and
v
S2
(
t) are two sinusoidal waveforms at different angular frequencies
of
w
1
and
w
2
. Note that one of them can be zero as a special case indicating a DC or steady input.
Assume that
w
1
<
w
2
. In this case,
T will be an integer multiple of 2
p
/
w
1
and another integer multiple
of 2
p
/
w
2
,
i.e.,
T k
k
k
k
=
=
=
1
1
2
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
p
w
p
w
w
w
and
, where
k
1
and
k
2
are two integers. It is possible to find
a value for
T satisfying this
condition only if the ratio
w
1
/
w
2
is a rational number.
The circuit is linear. Therefore
v
11
(
t) and
i
11
(
t) will be sinusoids at
w
1
rad/s and
v
12
(
t) and
i
12
(
t) will
be sinusoids at
w
2
rad/s. Therefore, both cross power terms –
v
11
(
t)
i
12
(
t) and
v
12
(
t)
i
11
(
t) – will involve
products of two sinusoidal waveforms of different frequencies
-
w
1
and
w
2
. By applying trigonometric
identities they may be expressed as sinusoidal waveforms of sum frequency and difference frequency.
Therefore,
v
11
(
t)
i
12
(
t)
+
v
12
(
t)
i
11
(
t) will yield two sinusoids – one with a frequency of
w
1
+
w
2
rad/s and
the second with a frequency of
w
2
-
w
1
rad/s.
Both these sinusoidal waveforms will have integer number of cycles within an interval of length
T
as shown next.
Period of
rad/s component
s
s
w w
p
w w
p
w
p
1
2
1
2
2
2
2
1
1
+
=
+
=
T
T
T
k
w
w w
w
w
w
w
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
+
= +
= + =
=
k
k
k
k
k
k
an integer
Period o
∵
ff
rad/s component
d
d
w
w
p
w
w
p
w
p
w w
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
−
=
−
=
= −
−
T
T
T
k
k
11
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
+
=
− =
=
k
k
k
k
k
w
w
w
w
an integer
∵
Therefore, the area under these two sinusoidal waveforms over an interval of
T s long will be zero.
Thus, the cross power terms in the instantaneous power contribute only zero to the average power in
this case. Therefore,
P
=
P
1
+
P
2
. We can extend this analysis to a case involving many sinusoidal
sources of different frequencies easily and arrive at the
Power Superposition Principle stated in the
following:
The average power delivered to an element in a linear circuit excited by sinusoidal sources
of different frequencies (including DC,
i.e.,
zero frequency) obeys superposition principle.
6.32
Power and Energy in Periodic Waveforms
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