6.18
Power and Energy
in Periodic Waveforms
The waveforms of voltage, current, power and the plot of energy function are shown in Fig. 6.3-6.
Voltage and current have a frequency of 1 Hz whereas the power waveform has a frequency of
2 Hz. Power waveform is bipolar. The voltage source delivers energy to the current source for some
time during a cycle and the current source delivers energy to the voltage source for the remaining time.
However, the net energy delivered in one cycle is from voltage source to current source. The energy
plot
shows that E(
t) is non-monotonic on
t. This must be so since the power waveform is bipolar.
The line joining the energy values at the end of cycles of power is seen to be a straight line with a
slope of 5 W. The average value of
p(
t) over a cycle must then be 5 W. It is verified to be 5 W in the
derivation that follow.
20
t
(s)
t
(s)
v
(
t
)
i
(
t
),
i
(
t
)
/10,
v
(
t
)/10
p
(
t
)
p
(
t
)
p
(
t
)
/10
(W),
E
(
t
)
E
(
t
)
(J)
p
(
t
)/10
40
60
2
π
3
π
π
2
π
3
π
π
1
0.5
–0.5
–1
–1.5
1.5
Fig. 6.3-6
Waveforms and plots for Example 6.3-5. Upper traces show voltage, current
and power.
Average of
over
a cycle
Area of
over
p t
p t
( )
( )
=
a cycle
period of cycle
=
−
− °
= −
∫
[(
cos(
)]
si
5 10
2
60
5
5
0
t
dt
p
p
p
nn(
)
2
60
5
0
t
− °
=
p
W
example: 6.3-6
An electrical element draws a current of
i(
t)
=
-√
2 cos 100
p
t A from a sinusoidal voltage source of
v(
t)
=
10
√
2 sin 100
p
t V. Find and plot instantaneous power delivered to the load and energy delivered
to it as functions of time.
Solution
p(
t)
=
-
20sin 100
p
t cos 100
p
t
=
-
10 sin 200
p
t W and
E(
t)
=
-
0.05(1
-
cos 200
p
t) J.
Power waveform has 100 Hz frequency whereas the voltage and current waveforms have 50 Hz
frequency. The period of the power waveform is 10 ms.
Average
Power in Periodic Waveforms
6.19
Average value of power over a cycle
=
−
=
∫
10
200
0
0
10
sin
p
t dt
ms
. Therefore the energy function
cannot be a growing function. The net change in
E(
t) over a cycle of power waveform will be zero. It
has to be an alternating function of time with a possible average content, indicating that there is no
net energy transfer from source to load over a cycle of power waveform. The plots shown in Fig. 6.3-7
confirm this.
t
(ms)
t
(ms)
v
(
t
)
i
(
t
),
i
(
t
)
/10,
p
(
t
) /10
E
(
t
) (J)
p
(
t
) /10
v
(
t
) /10
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
1
0.5
–0.5
–1
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
–1.5
–0.05
–0.1
1.5
Fig. 6.3-7
Waveforms and plots for Example 6.3-6
6.4
aVerage PoWer In PerIodIc WaVeFormS
The following points emerge from the discussion on instantaneous power in Section 6.3.
• Instantaneous power delivered to an element is a non-constant function of time in
general.
• If the voltage across the element and current through
the element are periodic
waveforms with period
T
and zero average value over a cycle period, the instantaneous
power will be a periodic waveform with period 0.5
T
and may have a non-zero average
value over its cycle period of 0.5
T
.
• The energy delivered to the element will also be a function of time. The value of total
energy delivered to the element at end-of-cycle points will fall on a straight line with
a slope equal to the average value of instantaneous power waveform over its cycle
period.
• If the instantaneous power waveform is unipolar, the energy function will be monotonic
on
t
. If instantaneous power waveform is bipolar, the energy function will be non-
monotonic.
A 100 W incandescent lamp draws about 0.615 A peak sinusoidal current when a 325 V peak
sinusoidal voltage at 50 Hz is applied across it. This results in a
p(
t)
=
200 sin
2
200
p
t W of instantaneous
6.20
Power and Energy in Periodic Waveforms
power in it.
p(
t) can also be expressed as
p(
t)
=
(100
-
100 cos 200
p
t) W. Thus, the instantaneous
power varies from 0 to 200 W and goes back to zero in 10 ms. Does the lamp filament respond to this
power input variation?
It does respond to the power variation. However, 10ms is too small a time interval for significant
variations in the temperature of the filament to take place. This is due to the thermal capacity of the
lamp system that tends to behave like thermal inertia when it comes to changes in lamp temperature.
Thus, though the lamp responds to both the 100 W constant component and the 100 W cosine term
in instantaneous power, the response of temperature variable to the 100 W cosine term is very small
compared to the response to the 100 W constant term. Thus, the lamp temperature and hence its light
output is more or less constant in the long run (after about 50 to 100ms of switching on in this context)
corresponding to the 100 W constant term in
p(
t), with the 100 W rippling term contributing only a
negligible amplitude oscillation in them. And, persistence of human vision virtually blots out even this
small rippling component in light output. Hence, we do not get to see the small amount light flicker
that takes place invariably due to the power changing periodically with a period of 10 ms. If we apply
a 5 Hz voltage instead of 50 Hz voltage to a lamp, the oscillating component in lamp light output will
be much more in amplitude and the frequency of this oscillating component will be 10 Hz. We will
experience a prominent flicker in the lamp light output.
Thus, we conclude that, if the frequency of pulsation in instantaneous power delivered to an
electrical load (lamps, heating element, motors etc.)
is sufficiently high, the output from the load
(light, temperature, torque, speed etc.) will be constant in the long run. The magnitude of this constant
output is decided by the average of instantaneous power over its cycle period. The load will ignore the
pure alternating component/s in instantaneous power. Therefore, the average value of
p(
t), averaged
over its cycle period, is a much more relevant quantity in practice.
The Cycle Average Power in the context of periodic waveforms is defined as the cycle
average of instantaneous power over a cycle of instantaneous power and is denoted by
P
,
i.e.
,
P
p t dt
p t
=
∫
1
Period
over one period of
( )
( )
=
2
0 5
T
v t i t dt
t
t
T
( ) ( )
,
.
+
∫
where
T
is the period of the periodic
voltage
and current waveforms and
t
is any arbitrary time instant after
t
=
0.
p
(
t
) is
assumed to be zero for
t
< 0. In practice, the integration is carried out from the
beginning of a power cycle to the end of that cycle.
The
Average Power contained in an instantaneous power waveform and the
Cycle Average Power
are two different concepts altogether. First of all, there can be a cycle average power only if
p(
t) is
a periodic waveform. But average power can be defined and calculated for any
p(
t). Let
v(
t) be the
voltage across an element and
i(
t) be the current through it over an interval of time denoted by [
t
1
,
t
2
].
Then the energy delivered to the element during this interval is given by the area under
p(
t)
=
v(
t)
i(
t)
from
t
1
to
t
2
. Then, the
Average Power (P
av
) delivered during this interval is the value of constant power
that would have delivered the same amount of energy to the element in the interval between
t
1
to
t
2
.
∴
=
−
∫
P
t
t
v t i t dt
t
t
av
1
2
1
1
2
(
)
( ) ( )
The instant
t
1
is usually chosen to be the instant at which the voltage was applied to the element
and the instant
t
2
is the instant at which the supply to the electrical element was switched off. If the
Average Power in Periodic Waveforms
6.21
two instants are chosen this way, the
P value gives the average rate at which energy was delivered to
the load element during the entire period of connection.
A simple relation exists between
Average Power (P
av
)
and
Cyclic Average Power (P) in the context
of periodic voltages and currents. Let
v(
t)
=
V
m
sin
w
t V and
i(
t)
=
I
m
sin (
w
t
+
q
) A. Let the interval
duration
t
2
-
t
1
extend over a large number of cycles of
p(
t). The instantaneous power in this case will
be periodic with a period of 0.5
T. But
t
2
-
t
1
may not be an integer multiple of 0.5
T. Hence, we express
t
2
-
t
1
as 0.5
nT
+
0.5
kT where
k is a real number between –1 and 1 and
n is an integer.
p t
V I
t
t
V I
t
P
T
p t dt
( )
sin
sin(
)
[cos
cos(
)]
( )
=
+ =
−
+
∴ =
m m
m m
w
w
q
q
w
q
2
2
2
0
00 5
0
2
2
2
2 2
.
[cos
cos(
)]
cos
si
T
V I
t
dt
V I
V I
∫
∫
=
−
+
=
−
×
p
w
q
w
q
q
w
p
w
m m
m m
m m
nn(
)
cos
( )
[co
2
2
1
1
2
0
2
1
2
1
1
2
w
q
q
p
w
t
V I
P
t
t
p t dt
t
t
V I
t
t
+
=
=
−
=
−
∫
m m
av
m m
ss
cos(
)]
cos
(
)
sin(
)
q
w
q
q
w
w
q
−
+
=
−
×
−
+
∫
2
2
2 2
2
1
2
2
1
t
dt
V I
V I
t
t
t
t
t
m m
m m
tt
t
V I
V I
n k
n
k
t
t
1
2
2
2
2
1
2
=
−
+
+
+
+
m m
m m
cos
(
)
sin[
]cos[
(
)
]
q
p
p
p
w
q
We used
t
2
-
t
1
=
0.5
nT
+
0.5
kT in the last step. sin (
p
n
+
p
k) is zero if there are integer periods of
length 0.5
T within
t
2
-
t
1
. If not, the magnitude of second term in the expression for
P
av
is upper bounded
by
V
m
I
m
/2
p
(
n
+
k). For a sufficiently large
n,
i.e., if the length of the interval over which the average
power is calculated is very large compared to the period of instantaneous power waveform, then, the
second term becomes negligible. The first term is same as cycle average power. Therefore,
Average
Power, P
av
=
Cycle Average Power, P, if the waveforms last for sufficient duration compared to their
period. If
v(
t) and
i(
t) persist for more than 20 or more cycles, the error in taking
P as
P
av
will be < 1%.
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