Problems
6.35
• Phase lag is not necessarily a phase delay and phase lead is not necessarily a phase advance. Phase
lag does not necessarily imply time delay and phase lead does not necessarily imply time advance.
• Instantaneous power
delivered to a two-terminal element,
p(
t)
=
v(
t)
i(
t), where
v(
t) and
i(
t) are the
element variables defined as per passive sign convention. The sum of
p(
t) delivered to all elements
in an isolated circuit will be zero.
• p(
t) delivered to an element is a non-constant function of time in general. If
v(
t) and
i(
t) are
periodic waveforms with period
T and zero average value over a cycle period,
p(
t) will be a periodic
waveform with period 0.5
T and may have a non-zero average value over its cycle period of 0.5
T.
• The energy delivered to the element will also be a function of time. The value of total energy
delivered to the element at end-of-cycle points will fall on a straight line with a slope equal to the
average value of
p(
t) waveform over its cycle period.
• The Cycle Average Power in the context of periodic waveforms is defined as the average of
p(
t)
over one cycle period and is denoted by
P. Average power,
P
av
over a time interval (
t
2
–
t
1
) is defined
as
P
t
t
v t i t dt
t
t
av
=
−
∫
1
2
1
1
2
(
)
( ) ( )
.
Average Power, P
av
=
Cycle Average Power, P, if the waveforms
remain applied to the circuit for sufficient duration compared to their period.
• Effective value or rms value of a waveform is the value of DC quantity that will produce the
same
heating effect as that produced by the waveform when it is applied as a voltage across a resistance
of 1
W
or as a current through a resistance of 1
W
. If
x(
t) is a periodic waveform with period
T, its
rms value is given by
X
T
x t
dt
T
rms
=
∫
1
2
0
[ ( )]
• Let
v(
t)
=
V
m
sin
w
t V and
i(
t)
=
I
m
sin(
w
t
+
q
) A be the voltage across and current through an
electrical element as per passive sign convention. Then rms value of
v(
t) is
V
m
/
√
2, rms value of
current is
I
m
/
√
2 and the average power delivered to the element is
V
rms
I
rms
cos
q
W.
• The average power delivered to an element in a linear circuit excited by sinusoidal sources of
different frequencies (including DC,
i.e., zero frequency) obeys superposition principle.
• Let
v(
t)
=
v
1
(
t)
+
v
2
(
t)
+
…
+
v
n
(
t) be a composite waveform comprising
n distinct frequency
sinusoidal waveforms. Then,
V
V
V
V
rms
1rms
2rms
n rms
=
+
+ +
2
2
2
.
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