P
roviding multiple examples seems to aid transfer a bit, yet the cognitive
science researcher Michelene Chi noted that “in almost all the empirical work
to date, on the role of example solutions, a student who has studied examples
often cannot solve problems that deviate slightly from the example solution.”
4
In his book
The Unschooled Mind: How Children Think and How Schools
Should Teach
, the developmental psychologist Howard Gardner pointed to
the body of evidence showing that even “students who receive honors grades
in college-level physics courses are frequently unable to solve basic problems
and questions encountered in a form slightly different from that on which
they have been formally instructed and tested.”
5
Nor has this failure of
transfer been limited to schools. Corporate training also suffers, with the
former Times Mirror Training Group chairman John H. Zenger writing
“Researchers who rigorously evaluate training have said that demonstrable
changes following training are hard to find.”
6
The recognition of the failure of general transfer has a history as long as
the study of the problem itself. The first attack on the problem came from the
psychologists Edward Thorndike and Robert Woodworth in 1901, with their
seminal paper “The Influence of Improvement in One Mental Function upon
the Efficiency of Other Functions.” In it, they attacked
the dominant theory of
education at the time, so-called formal discipline theory. This theory
suggested that the brain was analogous to a muscle, containing fairly general
capacities of memory, attention, and reasoning, and that training those
muscles, irrespective of the content, could result in general improvement.
This was the predominant theory behind universal instruction in Latin and
geometry, on the idea that it would help students think better. Thorndike was
able to refute this idea by showing that the ability to transfer was much
narrower than most people had assumed.
A
lthough studying Latin has fallen out of favor, many educational pundits
are reviving new incarnations of the formal discipline theory by suggesting
that everyone learn programming or critical thinking in order to improve their
general intelligence. Many popular “brain-training” games also subscribe to
this view of the mind, assuming that deep training on one set of cognitive
tasks will extend to everyday reasoning. It’s been more than one hundred
years since the verdict came in, yet the allure of a general transfer procedure
still has many searching for the Holy Grail.
Despite all this, the situation isn’t without hope. Although empirical work
and educational institutions have often failed to demonstrate significant
transfer, it is not the case that transfer doesn’t exist. Wilbert McKeachie, in
reviewing the history of transfer, noted that “Transfer is paradoxical. When
we want it, we do not get it. Yet it occurs all the time.”
7
Whenever you use an
analogy, saying something is like something else, you’re transferring
knowledge. If you know how to ice skate and later learn to Rollerblade,
you’re transferring skills. As Haskell pointed out, if transfer were really
impossible, we would be unable to function.
So what explains the disconnect? Why have educational institutions
struggled to demonstrate significant transfer, if transfer is something we all
need to function in the world? Haskell suggests that a major reason is that
transfer tends to be harder when our knowledge is more limited. As we
develop more knowledge and skill in an area, they become more flexible and
easier to apply outside the narrow contexts in which they were learned.
However, I’d like to add my own hypothesis as an explanation for the
transfer problem: most formal learning is woefully indirect.
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