Roger Bacon and Albertus Magnus
The deeper assimilation of Aristotelian philosophy that resulted from
the reception of Abu Ma‘shar and Avicenna shifted the emphasis from
cosmogony and universal aetiology that we observed in the cosmologi-
cal works of the twelfth century to a substratum of natural investigations
concerned with particular phenomena in the terrestrial world. In De
mineralibus (On Minerals), Albertus Magnus, restating Aristotle’s opening
lines of Physics, clarifies such an approach:
Dealing with many particulars we must first understand their natures
from the evidences and effects [observed], and proceed from these to
their causes and compositions; for the evidences and effects are more
obvious to us. But in [dealing with] the nature of universals, which
we have mentioned in all the preceding books, we had to proceed
in the opposite way, [reasoning] from the cause to the effects and
powers and evidences.
45
So in the case of minerals, Albertus is concerned with conclusions that
can be drawn about their composition from direct experience, their
physicality and effects in nature. There are, then, two levels of causality:
the universal and the particular, each with distinct sets of effects; the
first is astral and the second is natural; ‘once we know the cause produc-
ing stones, we should know the efficient cause of everything that can
be produced. For we know that the motion and power of the heavenly
bodies, the rising and setting and rays of the stars, are causes different
[from other natural causes].’
46
Liber de causis proprietatium elementorum
(On the Causes of the Properties of the Elements) is another of Albertus’s
works that demonstrates these aetiological levels; ‘for there is a certain
first efficient cause of bodies that does not enter into their composition
through substance and being, but infuses its powers into all things both
simple and composite, and this is called the fifth element’; that is the
astral element.
47
He proceeds to explain all kinds of natural phenomena
and their natural causes.
Roger Bacon, teacher of Aristotelian philosophy and commentator,
defines metaphysics in his Opus Majus as ‘this science [that] deals with
what is common to all things and all sciences’.
48
He provides in his Opus
Majus mathematical and geometrical methods that explain principles
such as astral influences, or particular phenomena as shown in his
De multiplicatione specierum (On the Multiplication of Species). These two
modes of investigations, however, are not separate or independent for
78
The Arabic Influences on Early Modern Occult Philosophy
he writes elsewhere that ‘when we speak of the power of a particular
agent we do not exclude the regimen of the universal agent and first
cause, for any first cause has a greater influence on the effect than any
second cause’.
49
On the aetiological and ontological level, Bacon fully
accepts astral causation as postulated by Abu Ma‘shar and Avicenna
whom he calls ‘the imitator and expositor of Aristotle’.
50
Both are among
the most cited references in Bacon’s works.
In his Opus Majus, Bacon asserts: ‘celestial things are the causes of the
terrestrial. Therefore these terrestrial things will not be known without
knowledge of the celestials.’
51
For terrestrial events and phenomena to
manifest, they require not only celestial causes but material ones too.
Whereas Avicenna tends to speak of the terrestrial causes as oppos-
ing astral influences in his comments on astrology, Bacon expresses
their interaction in terms of reciprocity between celestial and terrestrial
agents that can be expressed mathematically and geometrically.
52
Bacon
adopts al-Kindi’s theory of rays to explain this reciprocity. Accordingly,
the astral agent is responsible for the universal forms or species but
individuation is the result of their interaction with the rays of terres-
trial things. Abu Ma‘shar posits that the celestial bodies are responsible
for the individuation of species; whereas Bacon, like al-Kindi, ascribes
it to the diverse radial aspects linking celestial, elementary and psychic
causes:
Every efficient cause acts by its own force which it produces on the
matter subject to it, as the light of the sun produces its own force in
the air, and this force is light diffused through the whole world from
the solar light. This force is called likeness, image, species, and by
many other names, and it is produced by substance as well as accident
and by spiritual substance as well as corporeal [
. . . ] this species causes
every action in this world; for it acts on sense, on intellect, and all the
matter in the world for the production of things.
53
Radial reciprocity among terrestrial things and celestial bodies expressed
geometrically forms the foundation of Bacon’s natural philosophy
inspired by al-Kindi’s De radiis and also his De aspectibus.
54
Theories of astral influences and causation also occupy a central place
in the natural philosophy of Albertus Magnus.
55
As Rutkin demon-
strates, Albertus was concerned with ‘astrologizing Aristotelianism’ in
his own account of causality that became influential on some early
modern occult philosophers.
56
The science of the stars, according to
Albertus, provides the link between natural philosophy and metaphysics
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