Masaryk university

Apkhazebi Da Abkhazeti [Abkhazians and Abkhaiza] (Tbilisi: Ganatleba, 1990).

206^ Georgian historiography emphasized ethnic unity between Abkhazians and Georgians: “Georgians and Abkhazians are united by blood relations, common families and common children. The unity of Georgians and Abkhazians is determined by life itself. Abkhazians participated actively in the process of the political unification of our common homeland and the creation of a culture common to both our nationalities. This obligates both of our peoples to protect and deepen, and not to destroy century old tradition of our common life in peace and understanding, mutual trust and mutual support and the tradition of brotherhood made holy by the blood of ancestors” in Giorgi Zhorzholiani, Istoricheskie I Politicheskie Korni Konflikta v Abkhazii [Historical and Political Roots of the Conflict in Abkhazia] (Tbilisi: Metsniereba, 2000), 88.

207^ Ghia Nodia, “Georgia: Dimensions and Insecurity,” in Statehood and Security: Georgia after the Rose Revolution, Bruno Coppieters and Roberts Legvold ed. (Cambridge ; New York: MIT Press, n.d.), 46.

208^ Dimitri Shvelidze, Politikuri Dapirispirebebi Da Erovnuli Khelisuplebis Damkhoba Saqartveloshi (1989-1992) [Overthrow of the Government and National Political Controversy in Georgia (1989-1992)] (Tbilisi: Gamomcemloba “Universali,” 2008), 19.

209^ Ibid., 30.

210^ Damoukidebloba [Independence], April 1990.

211^ Damzir Jojua, “Saqartvelos Modzraobis Periodizaciis Sakitkhisatvis. XXs. II Nakhevari [The National Movement and the Issue of Periodization. The Second Half of the XX Century],” Saistorio Dziebani, June 2003, http://matiane.wordpress.com/2010/02/10/periodization-of-national-movement/.

212^ Giorgi Ciqarishvili, “Zhami Cheshmariti,” Damarckhebuli Modzraobis Qronika, 2003, 15.

213^ Aleksei Zverev, “Ethnic Conflicts in the Caucasus 1988-1994,” in Contested Borders in the Caucasus (VUB University Press, 1996), http://poli.vub.ac.be/publi/ContBorders/eng/.

214^ Toal, Gerard and OĽoughlin, John: Inside South Ossetia: A Survey of Attitudes in a De Facto State, Post-Soviet Affairs, 2013, Vol. 29, No. 2, pp: 136-172.

215^ Angarishi Idzulebit Gadaadgilebul Pirta Da Konpliktis Shemdeg Dazaralebulta Uplebebis Mdgomareobis Shesaxeb Saqartveloshi [Report on the State of Human Rights of IDPs in Georgia] (Saqartvelos Sakhalkho Damcveli, July 2010), http://www.ombudsman.ge/uploads/other/0/92.pdf.

216^ Gerard Toal (Gearóid Ó Tuathail) and John O’Loughlin, “Inside South Ossetia: A Survey of Attitudes in a de Facto State,” Post-Soviet Affairs 29, no. 2 (2013): 136–72, doi:10.1080/1060586X.2013.780417.

217^ Dimitri Shvelidze, Politikuri Dapirispirebebi Da Erovnuli Khelisuplebis Damkhoba Saqartveloshi (1989-1992) [Overthrow of the Government and National Political Controversy in Georgia (1989-1992)], 42.

218^ “Saqartvelos Uzenaesi Sabchos Tavdzdomaris Baton Zviad Gamsakhurdiis gamosvla 1990 Clis 14 noembris skhdomaze [The Speech of the Chairman of the Supreme Council of Georgia Zviad Gamsakhurdia at the meeting on 12 November 1990],” Saqartvelos Respublika, 1990.

219^ Fond “Otkrytoe Obshestvo,” O Poiske Prichin, Putei Uregulirovania I Vozmozhnych Napravleniax Razvitia Gruzino-Osetinskogo Konflikta [On the Search of the Causes, Possible Directions and Ways to Resolve the Georgian-Ossetian Conflict] (Tbilisi, 2005).

220^ Ghia Nodia, “Causes and Vision of Conflict in Abkhazia,” 30.

221^ Toma Chagelishvili, 9 Aprilidan 9 Aprilamde [From 9 April to 9 April], n.d., https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i36VwV-KDLI.

222^ Ghia Nodia, “Political Crisis in Georgia,” Current Politics and Economics of Europe 2, no. 1/2 (1992): 32.

223^ G. Zhorhyoliani, S. Lekishvili, L. Mataradze, L. Toidze and E. Khoshtaria, Historic, Political and Legal Aspects of the Georgian-Ossetian Conflict (Tbilisi: “Samshoblo” Publishers, 1995), 3–4.

224^ Gia Nodia and Álvaro Pinto Scholtbach, The Political Landscape of Georgia: Political Parties: Achievements, Challenges and Prospects (Eburon Uitgeverij B.V., 2006).

225^ Dimitri Shvelidze, Politikuri Dapirispirebebi Da Erovnuli Khelisuplebis Damkhoba Saqartveloshi (1989-1992) [Overthrow of the Government and National Political Controversy in Georgia (1989-1992)], 30–44.

226^ Ghia Nodia, “Political Turmoil in Georgia and the Ethnic Policies of Zviad Gamsakhurdia,” in Contested Borders in The Caucasus, Bruno Coppieters eds. (Brussels: VUB University Press, 1996), http://poli.vub.ac.be/publi/ContBorders/eng/ch0201.htm.

227^ Fond “Otkrytoe Obshestvo,” O Poiske Prichin, Putei Uregulirovania I Vozmozhnych Napravleniax Razvitia Gruzino-Osetinskogo Konflikta [On the Search of the Causes, Possible Directions and Ways to Resolve the Georgian-Ossetian Conflict], 12.

228^ Ibid., 14.

229^ Alexander Kupatadze, “Radiological Smuggling and Uncontrolled Territories: The Case Of Georgia,” Global Crime 8, no. 1 (2007): 40–57, doi:10.1080/17440570601121852.

230^ Ghia Nodia, “Causes and Vision of Conflict in Abkhazia,” 3.

231^ Petre Mamradze, Absurduli Omi, Romelic Ar Unda Momkhdariko [Absurd War] (Tbilisi: Bakur Sulakauris Gamomcemloba, 2011), 302.

232^ Dennis Sammut and Nikola Cvetkovski, Confidence-Building Matters. The Goergia-South Ossetia Conflict (London: Verification Technology Information Centre, March 1996), http://www.vertic.org/media/Archived_Publications/Matters/Confidence_Building_Matters_No6.pdf.

233^ Dimitri Shvelidze, Politikuri Dapirispirebebi Da Erovnuli Khelisuplebis Damkhoba Saqartveloshi (1989-1992) [Overthrow of the Government and National Political Controversy in Georgia (1989-1992)], 178–179.

234^ Fond “Otkrytoe Obshestvo,” O Poiske Prichin, Putei Uregulirovania I Vozmozhnych Napravleniax Razvitia Gruzino-Osetinskogo Konflikta [On the Search of the Causes, Possible Directions and Ways to Resolve the Georgian-Ossetian Conflict], 9.

235^ Zurcher, The Post-Soviet Wars, 112–113.

236^ Paata Leiashvili, “Post-Soviet Ethnic Conflicts: The Economic Aspects Require an In-Depth Study,” The Caucasus & Globalization 2, no. 1 (2007): 37.

237^ Ibid.

238^ As one of the leading Georgian expert Mamuka Areshidze suggests, illegal activities in South Ossetia were protected by the “Sport Mafia” of Jambul Tedeev, the trainer of wrestling team. Mamuka Areshidze, Konpliktebis Mimdinare Ekonomikuri Mizezebi [Current Economic Causes of the Conflicts], 2010.

239^ Roman Gotsiridze and Otar Kandelaki, Vliatelnye Gruppy I Korupcia: Ugroza Nacionalnoi Bezopasnosti Gruzii [Influential Groups and Corruption: Threat to National Security of Georgia] (Tbilisi: ELF, 2001), 158.

240^ Petre Mamradze, Absurduli Omi, Romelic Ar Unda Momkhdariko [Absurd War], 34.

241^ Phil Champain, Diana Klein and Natalia Mirimanova eds., From War Economies to Peace Economis in the South Caucasus (International Alert, 2004).

242^ “Acharis Krizisi – Movlenata Qronologia [Adjara Crisis - Timeline],” Civil Georgia, May 5, 2004, http://www.civil.ge/geo/article.php?id=6700.

243^ Theresa Freese, “A Report from the Field: Georgia’s War against Contraband and the Struggle for Territorial Integrity,” SAIS Review of International Affairs 25, no. 1 (2005): 109–110, doi:10.1353/sais.2005.0008.

244^ “Silovye Struktury Juzhnoi Osetii Privedeni v Sostojanie Boeboi Gotovnosti, Ozhidaja Provokacii [Security Structures in South Ossetia Have Combat Readiness, Awaiting for Provocation],” Newsru.com, June 11, 2004, http://www.newsru.com/arch/world/11jun2004/osetia.html.

245^ “Prezident Juzhnoi Osetii Ne Somnevaetsja, Chto Respublika Voidot v Sostav RF [The President of South Ossetia Has No Doubt That the Country Will Become a Part of the Russian Federation],” Newsru.com, June 10, 2004, http://www.newsru.com/world/10jun2004/osetia.html.

246^ Guram Vashakidze, “Cxinvalis Gavlit – Tamarashenshi: Konpliktis Zona [Through Tskhinvali to Tamarasheni: The Conflict Zone],” Saqartvelos Respublika, 2004, N160(4889) edition, 2.

247^ Cory Welt, “The Thawing of a Frozen Conflict: The Internal Security Dilemma and the 2004 Prelude to the Russo-Georgian War,” Europe-Asia Studies 62, no. 1 (2010): 86, doi:10.1080/09668130903385390.

248^ “Kurieri,” News (Tbilisi: Rustavi-2 TV, June 12, 2004).

249^ Welt, “The Thawing of a Frozen Conflict,” 90.

250^ “Report of the Government of Georgia on the Aggression by the Russian Federation against Georgia,” Civil Georgia, August 7, 2009, http://www.civil.ge/files/files/GeorgianGovernmentReportWar.pdf.

251^ H.E. President Mikheil Saakashvili To The Parliamentary Assembly Of The Council Of Europe (Vienna: The Permanent Mission of Georgia to the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe, January 26, 2005), http://www.diaspora.gov.ge/files/faili/GoG_WarRep_Ch4/GoG_WarRep_Ch4.Att36.pdf.

252^ Mehmet Bardakçı, “EU Engagement in Conflict Resolution in Georgia: Towards a More Proactive Role,” Caucasian Review of International Affairs 4, no. 3 (2010): 214–36.

253^ Svante E. Cornell, Johanna Popjanevski and Niklas Nilsoon, Russia’s War in Georgia: Causes and Implications for Georgia and the World, Policy Paper (Central Asia-Caucasus Institute and Silk Road Studies Program, August 2008).

254^ H.E. President Mikheil Saakashvili To The Parliamentary Assembly Of The Council Of Europe.

255^ Ministry of International Affairs of Georgia, “Saqartvelos Sagareo Politikis Strategia 2012-2015 [Georgia’s Foreign Policy Strategy 2012-2015],” September 25, 2012, http://mfa.gov.ge/files/709_15575_959168_FPStrategy_FINAL-25.09.12.pdf.

256^ Ministry of Internal Affairs of Georgia, “2014 clis strategia [The Strategy of 2014],” 2014, http://police.ge/files/pdf/misia%20da%20strategia/ganvitarebis%20strategia_2014GEO.pdf.

257^ The strategic planning of the whole operation by the Georgian side was subjected to crushing criticism by the director at the Armenian Center for National and International Studies (ACNIS), Richard Giragosian. He believes that Georgia overestimated its own military capability, underestimated the capability of the Russians to respond with military force, and, finally, underestimated the strategic significance of Roki Tunnel, See in Rechard Giragosian, New Threats to Regional Security: Considerations for Armenia, ACNIS Policy Brief (Yerevan, February 2009), http://acnis.am/old/publications/2009/ACNIS%20Policy%20Brief%20No.1%202009.pdf.

258^ For analysis of military aspects of the Russian-Georgian armed conflict see Zdeněk Kříž and Zinaida Shevchuk, “Georgian Readiness for NATO Membership after Russian-Georgian Armed Conflict,” Communist and Post-Communist Studies 44, no. 1 (March 2011): 89–97, doi:10.1016/j.postcomstud.2011.01.003.

259^ Ronald Asmus, Mcire Omi Romelmac Msoplio Shedzra [A Littel War That Shook the World] (Tbilisi: Ilia State University Press, 2010), 236.

260^ For evolution of mutual relation between Georgia and NATO see Zdenek Kriz and Zinaida Shevchuk, “Georgia on the Way to NATO after the Russian-Georgian Armed Conflict in 2008,” Obrana a Strategie (Defence & Strategy) 9, no. 1 (June 15, 2009): 101–15, doi:10.3849/1802-7199.09.2009.01.101-115.

261^ Ted Hopf, Russia’s European Choice, First Edition edition (New York, N.Y: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), 274.

262^ Robert Kagan, “Putin Makes His Move,” The Washington Post, August 11, 2008, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/08/10/AR2008081001871.html.

263^ At the meeting on 5 September in Moscow, the Russian campaign against Georgia was supported by Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tadzhikistan, Uzbekistan, Belarus, and Armenia; yet none of the states recognized the sovereignty of Georgian separatist areas.

264^ “Germania Otstaivaet Celostnost Gruzii [Germany Defends Integrity of Georgia],” Kommersant.ru, August 15, 2008, http://kommersant.ru/doc/1012261.

265^ Georgian Ministry of Defence, “List of Casualties among the Georgian Military Servicemen,” 2008.

266^ “Opicialuri Monacemebit, Konpliktis Shedegad 326 Adamiani Daigupa [According to Official Figures,326 People Were Killed in the Conflict],” Civil Georgia, September 12, 2008, http://www.civil.ge/geo/article.php?id=19495.

267^ Nona Mikhelidze, “After the 2008 Russia-Georgian War: Implications for the Wider Caucasus and Prospects for Western Involvement in Conflict Resolution” (presented at the The Caucasus and Black Sea region: European Neighborhood Policy (ENP) and beyond, Istituto Affari Internazionali, 2009), http://www.iai.it/pdf/DocIAI/iai0901.pdf.

268^ Global Security, War in Georgia, July 5, 2009, http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/georgia-2008-1.htm.

269^ “Georgia Spells Out Conditions For Signing Agreement On Non-Use Of Force,” Radio Free Europe, July 2, 2009, Caucasus Report edition, http://www.rferl.org/content/Georgia_Spells_Out_Conditions_For_Signing_Agreement_On_NonUse_Of_Force/1767937.html.

270^ Alexandros Petersen, “The 1992-1993 Georgia-Abkhazia War: A Forgotten Conflict,” Caucasian Review of International Affairs 2, no. 44 (2008): 187–99.

271^ George Tarkhan-Mouravi, “The Georgian-Abkhazian Conflict in a Regional Contexts,” Policy Documentation Centre, 1996, http://pdc.ceu.hu/archive/00002157/01/IPS_Abkhaz_paper_jav.pdf.

272^ Some books published in the Georgian language advance these arguments: V. Chania, Konplikti Abkhazetshi: Istoriuli Kanonzomiereba Tu Sabediscero Shecdoma?! [ Conflict in Abkhazia:A Fatal Error or the Historical Pattern?!] (Tbilisi: Meridiani, 2003); Roman Miminoshvili and Guram Fandzikidze, Simartle Apkhazetze [Truth About Abkhazia] (Tbilisi: Merani, 1990); Tamaz Nadareishvili, Shetkmuleba Saqartvelos Cinaagmdeg [Conspiracy Against Georgia] (Tbilisi, 2002).

273^ The paradigm is understood as attitudes of parties towards the roots of the conflict and towards each other, their goals, and the conflict’s influence on the development within the country.

274^ Avtandil Menteshashvili, Some National and Ethnic Problems in Georgia (1918-1922) (Tbilisi: Samshoblo, 1992), 12.

275^ Ivlian Haindrava, “Perceptions of the Georgian-Abkhaz Conflict before August 2008,” in Transformation of the Georgian-Abkhaz Conflict: Rethinking the Paradigm, Archil Gegeshidze and Ivlian Haindrava ed. (London, 2011), 7, http://www.c-r.org/sites/default/files/Georgian%20Perspective_Transformation%20of%20Georgian%3AAbkhaz%20Conflict_201102_ENG.pdf.

276^ Russian sources describe the goal of Georgian policies as an attempt to assimilate Abkhazians through educational policies and demographic changes. “Georgianization” of Abkhazia meant suppression of the Abkhaz language, giving privileges to Georgians in all administrative and state organizations and massive migration of Georgians into Abkhazia, in: Institute of Sociopolitical Studies, O Bezopasnosti Rossii v Svjazi S Sobytijami v Abkhazii, Analytical Paper (Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences, 1993), 3–4.

277^ According to Stuart Kaufman, inter-ethnic relations between Abkhazians and Georgians are based on competing mythology about the origin and history of this region. Georgian attitudes towards Abkhazians are based on the beliefs that Abkhazia has been a historical part of Georgia since the ancient kingdom of Colchis in the second millennium B.C.E. The kingdom of Colchis and the kingdom of Egrisi are treated as subjects of Georgian “statehood” stretching over what today is the Georgian territory. In line with this interpretation, Abkhazian people (Apsu) belong to the Georgian tribes, who migrated from the Northern Caucasus in the 17th century. Contrary to that interpretation, Abkhazians believe that they are a distinct ethnic group, with a different language (closer to the languages of North Caucasian people), who were the original inhabitants of the present-day territory of Abkhazia. The most disputed point in the interpretation of their history lies in the eleventh century: according to Georgian sources, the Abkhazian Kingdom was a part of the bigger Georgian Kingdom. This period is considered to be the golden age of Georgian unity under the rule of David the Builder. The unification process of different Caucasus nations was strengthened by broad usage of the Georgian language for administration. Accordingly, “the ‘Abkhazia kings’ … were Georgian, culturally and politically speaking.” Kaufman, Modern Hatreds, 92.

278^ Georgii Anchabadze, Voprosy Gruzino-Abkhazskikh Vzaimootnoshenii [Questions of Georgian-Abkhaz Interrelations] (Tbilisi: Kavkazskii Dialog, 2006), 212.

279^ Out of 140 deputies, 57 were Abkhaz, 53 were Georgian, 14 Russian, and 16 were from other nationalities. Alexei Arbatov et al., Managing Conflict in the Former Soviet Union: Russian and American Perspectives, First Edition edition (Cambridge, Mass: The MIT Press, 1997), 375.

280^ Bruno Coppieters, “The Georgian-Abkhazian Conflict,” in Europeanization and Conflict Resolution – Case Studie from the European Periphery, Coppoeter, Bruno, Emerson, Michael, Huysseune, Michel, Kovziridze, Tamara, Noutcheva Gergana, Tocci, Nathalie and Vahl, Marius eds (Gent: Academia Press, 2004), 196.

281^ Grigorii Lezhava, Mezhdu Gruzieei I Rossiei. Istoricheskie Korni I Sovremennye Factory Abkhazo-Gruzinskogo Konflikta (XIX-XX Vv.) [Between Georgia and Russia. Historical Roots and Modern Factors in Abkhaz-Georgian Conflict (XIX-XX Centuries)] (Moscow: Rossiskaya Akademiya Nauk, 1997), 245.

282^ Napo Meskhia, Rogor Gaskhviskhda Apkhazeti (paktebi, Paktebi, Paktebi...) Mcare Simartle Dauparavad [How Did We Lose Abkhazia] (Tbilisi: Chkhoria, 2009), 15.

283^ Alexander Studenikin, “Roots of the 1992-1993 Georgian-Abkgazian Armed Conflict,” Centre for Analasis of Startegies and Technologies (CAST), 2002, http://mdb.cast.ru/mdb/6-2002/ac/rgaac/.

284^ Pavel K. Baev, “Civil Wars in Georgia: Corruption Breeds Violence,” in Potentials of Disorder, Christoph Zürcher and Jan Koehler eds., New Approaches to Conflict Analysis (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2003), 139.

285^ Ghia Nodia, “Political Turmoil in Georgia and the Ethnic Policies of Zviad Gamsakhurdia,” 75.

286^ Levon Toidze, “K Oprosu O Politicheskom Statuse v Abkhazii (stranicy Istorii 1921-1931) [On the Question of the Political Status of Abkhazia (Pages of History 1921-1931)],” n.d., http://www.georgianweb.com/history/rus/abkhazia.html.

287^ Employment rate in industry composed 13.7% in 1978 in Abkhazia, which was almost 6% less than the total employment rate in industry in Georgia. Boris Ashuba, Natalya Bushina and Alexandr Gulia, Problemy Rozvitiya Regionalnoy Ekonomiki v Abkhazkou SSR [Problems of Development of the Regional Economy in the Abkhaz ASSR] (Tbilisi: Ekonomika, 1982), 56.

288^ Pavel K. Baev, “Civil Wars in Georgia: Corruption Breeds Violence,” 130.

289^ The head of the Georgian faction of the Supreme Coucil of Abkhazia was Tamaz Nadareishvili, who was appointed on Zviad Gamsakhurdia’s recommendiation. However, this political fragmentation had not been used in order to establish more effective cooperation with Abkhazian leaders, when the national interest and territorial integrity of Georgia had to be adressed. Napo Meskhia, Rogor Gaskhviskhda Apkhazeti (paktebi, Paktebi, Paktebi...) Mcare Simartle Dauparavad [How Did We Lose Abkhazia], 124–125.

290^ Eduard Shevardnadze, Pikrebi Carsulsa Da Momavalze. Memuarebi [Memories On Past and Future] (Tbilisi: Palitra L, 2006), 396.

291^ Ibid., 400–401.

292^ Article 107 of the 1921 Georgian Constitution stated, that “Abkhasie (district of Soukhoum), Georgia Musulmane (district of Batum), and Zakhatala (district of Zakhatala), which are integral parts of the Georgian Republic, enjoy autonomy in the administration of their affairs.” Welt, “The Thawing of a Frozen Conflict”; Ghia Nodia, “Causes and Vision of Conflict in Abkhazia,” 22.

293^Konstantin I. Kazenin,