SENTENCE TYPOLOGY IN COGNITIVE GRAMMAR: CLAUSE
TYPES AND CLAUSE STRUCTURE
J.R. Taylor proposes the sentence typology: all the sentences can be classed
into single clauses and constructions which are built as combinations of clauses.
The main criterion for further division becomes the degree of integration between
clauses. The merit of this classification is that it is based on correlation between
formal syntactic properties of the sentences and processes of conceptual operations
(basically, conceptual integration) which enable the creation of the sentences. The
classification is also aimed to show that the distinctions between clause types form
a continuum rather than discreet categories, which somehow reflects the work of
the human mind.
The notion “clause” is understood as a syntactic structure which designates a
single process and should be distinguished from clause fusion – a case of clause
combination, based on conceptual and syntactic integration, though both the
structures reveal the “syntax of the simple sentence”. Compare:
These cars are
expensive. These cars are expensive to repair.
The clause fusion construction can
be “unpacked” into two independent clauses, designating two different processes.
C l a u s e s, c l a u s e s t r u c t u r e
J.R. Taylor defines the clause as a linguistic structure that designates a
process, created through the elaboration of the participants in a temporal relation.
He observes the internal structure of the clause – its participants, the semantic role
of the participants, and their syntactic expression, in relation to the kinds of
situations (processes) that clauses designate. The said properties are the basic
parameters of clause classification.
According to the process type clauses are classed into those which
designate:
- dynamic processes (processes in which something happens, they are change-of-
state processes (1-3) and energy input processes (4-5)),
e.g.: 1.The house collapsed.
2. The farmer shot the rabbit.
3. I gave Peter the book.
4.
The telephone rang.
5.
The light flashed.
- stative processes (there is neither energy input, nor change; a situation simply
exists, where certain properties are attributed to an entity (6-7), the disposition of
one entity with respect to the other is stated (8-9), an entity is identified (10-11)),
e.g.: 6. The book is 200 pages long.
7.The book is boring.
8. The road follows the river.
9. The picture hangs above the sofa.
10. The cat is the one that stole the liver.
11. The photographer was Beryl.
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- cognitive processes (mental and perceptual processes, which can be described in
terms of dynamic cognitive processes (12-13) and stative cognitive processes (14-
15)),
e.g.: 12. I watched the film.
13. The noise frightened me.
14. I liked the film.
15. I’m afraid of the dark.
-complex processes (processes which are made up of 2 or more component
processes),
e.g.: 16. Jane returned the book to the library.
17. They elected him president.
18. I broke the vase.
(The analysis of complex processes in terms of component processes is justified in
that it is sometimes possible to focus on just one component in contrast to the
process in its totality, e.g.:
19. I almost broke the vase.
20. They didn’t elect Joe president.)
According to the number of participants clauses are classed into one-
participant clauses (Intransitives), two-participant clauses (Transitives), three-
participant clauses (Double-object clauses). J.R. Taylor addresses the semantic
roles of participants and their semantic expression in the clause. The question
under discussion is how a participant with a certain semantic role (Agent, Patient,
etc) is mapped in to the syntax, that is into particular grammatical relation (subject,
direct object, etc.).
Among the semantic roles of the participants J.R. Taylor distinguishes: Agent,
Instrument (dynamic processes)
Mover – an entity which changes its location, e.g.: The guests departed (dynamic
processes),
Patient - an entity which is affected by the process designated by the verb; the
entity may undergo a change in state, it may occupy a new location, it can change
ownership, etc, e.g.: John opened the door, The child put her toys away, The
building collapsed (dynamic processes),
Locatives – Place, Source, Goal, Path, e.g.: In the study (Place), I moved the books
from the table (Source), I put my affairs in order (Goal) (dynamic or stative
processes),
Experiencer – an animate entity which is the locus of a cognitive activity or a
cognitive state, e.g.: I know, I itch, I heard the noise (cognitive processes),
Stimulus – an entity which causes a cognitive activity or state in the Experiencer,
e.g.: I heard the noise, The noise startled me (cognitive processes),
Zero – a participant which merely exists or exhibits a property, but does not
interact with another entity, e.g.: Alice is asleep, The book costs 50 pounds (stative
processes).
One –participant clause (intransitive) presents a situation as involving only one
participant, which is an Experiencer or Zero, a Mover and Patient. There are three
types of intransitives: unergatives (a), unaccusatives (b), middles (c):
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a)
The telephone rang. The child slept;
b)
The guests departed. The building collapsed;
c)
The book sold well. The car drives smoothly. The ice-cream scoops out
easily. The poem doesn’t translate. The food won’t keep. The dirt brushes
off easily. I don’t photograph very well.
In (a) the subject exhibits the role of Zero (or Experiencer (the child)), in (b) the
subject is a Mover, in (c) the subject is a Patient-like entity.
Two- participant clause (transitive) prototypically involves the transfer of
energy from an Agent (the subject) to a Patient (the object), e.g.: The farmer shot
the rabbit. The prototypical transitive clause can also be made passive, e.g.: The
rabbit was shot by the farmer. A remarkable fact about the schema for a
prototypical transitive clause is that it accommodates all manner of relations
between entities. The following examples exhibit this fact, though exhibiting fewer
and fewer characteristics of a transitive interaction:
I remember the event.
My car burst a tyre.
The road follows the river.
Joe resembles his grandfather.
The road crosses the railway line.
The examples also illustrate a point that the subject can instantiate all manner of
participant roles, in addition to its prototypical use to designate an Agent. What
unifies the subject is its function – to designate the more prominent entity in the
conceptualization.
Three-participant clause (double-object clause) is a clause where a second
post-verbal object is obligatory, its presence determines the existence of the clause
as such, e.g.:
I’ll mail you the report.
I’ll bake you a cake.
The three participants are the Agent, the thing that undergoes changes at the hands
of the Agent, and the person which benefits from the change (Beneficiary).
Characteristic of this clause type is that the Beneficiary is construed as the Patient
of the interaction and it appears immediately after the verb, as the verb’s object (it
means that “my” action directly affects “you”, in that “you” come to receive the
report). In the clause we have the two objects, the syntax doesn’t “allow” to omit
the intermediate element (Patient) in the action chain (Agent- Patient- Beneficiary)
while profiling the relation between the initial and final elements (Agent and
Beneficiary) by means of placing the Beneficiary immediately after the verb. In
this respect the syntax bears the restrictions imposed by the action chain hierarchy
– our mind permits this kind of profile of the situation but can’t leave out the
essential, the real patient. Otherwise the object “you” appears as the real patient,
which invokes a different situation type.
The same situation can be conceptualized in an alternative way, e.g.:
I’ll mail the report to you.
I’ll bake a cake for you.
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Here the Patient is the thing that undergoes changes due to the action of the Agent.
The Beneficiary appears in the prepositional phrase, which is often optional, e.g.:
I’ll mail the report – is acceptable. Thus, this construction can’t be viewed as a
prototypical double-object clause because, strictly speaking, it illustrates a two-
participant interaction, profiling the relation between the initial and intermediate
elements of the action chain and leaving out the final element. This type of clause,
probably, takes the intermediate position between prototypical two-participant
clauses (prototypical transitive constructions) and prototypical three-participant
clauses, due to the double interpretation of “you”, i.e. either as a Path қGoal or
Benificiary, accordingly.
The existence of the two constructions for description of the same situation
illustrates a point that the object can instantiate not only the Patient, its prototypical
use, but also some other semantic roles.
C l a u s e c o m b i n a t i o n, i n t e g r a t i o n o f c l a u s e s
There are several ways of combining clauses into larger units. The criterion
which is used for classification of clause combinations is the degree of
integration between clauses. J.R. Taylor distinguishes minimal integration,
coordination, subordination, complementation, clause fusion which reveals the
highest degree of integration.
Minimal integration. Two clauses are simply juxtaposed, with no overt
linking, e.g.: I came, I saw, I conquered. The clauses are in sequential relation to
each other – the first mentioned was the first to occur.
Coordination. Each clause could in principle stand alone as an independent
conceptualization. The clauses are linked by means of words such as
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