Institute of Foreign Languages Faculty of Languages and Cultures

1. General information about the English people

1. 1.1 Ethnic history

The oldest known population of the British Isles was the Iberians, who arrived here from the Iberian Peninsula in 2500-2000BC. A little later, in 2000 - 1600 BC, newcomers from the central regions of Europe, representatives of another Alpine race, settled in the eastern part of Britain.

The most important milestone in the history of the British Isles was the settlement of their Celtic tribes. The Celts began to move here from the coastal areas of present-day Belgium and France in 1000 BC. Most of them spoke a language that belonged to the British branch of the Celtic languages. Celtic-speaking Celts, on the other hand, settled mainly in Ireland.
In the first century BC, the British Isles were conquered by Rome, whose rule lasted here for almost 400 years. But the Romanization of Britain took place to a much lesser extent than, for example, in Galia. In addition, Roman rule did not extend to the entire island: neither Scotland nor Wales were conquered by them. At the beginning of the fifth century, Roman rule in Britain ended, and for a time the Celts became independent. During this period of the so-called Celtic Renaissance, the Latin language, which had spread during the Roman rule, was almost forgotten.
From the middle of the first millennium AD, the British Isles were invaded by West Germanic tribes - Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians. Celtic tribes were either assimilated by the Germans, or
pushed to the north and west. There, in Cornwall, Wales, and Scotland, groups of the Celtic population persisted for a very long time, which determined the originality of their further ethnic development.
In the late fifth and early seventh centuries, a number of early feudal Anglo-Saxon states were formed: Kent, Wessex, Sussex, Essex, East Anglia, and Northumbria. Up to the twenty-first century. they were a struggle for political supremacy.
The fusion of these states into a single country was greatly facilitated by the raids of the Scandinavians that began in the 7th century, who founded many settlements in the northern and eastern regions of the island. The new state was called England.
An important historical event in the life of Britain was the invasion in 1066 of the Normans from Northern France (Normandy).The Norman conquest led to the strengthening of royal power and contributed to the completion of the process of feudalization of England. The top of the feudal society in the state was made up of the Norman conquerors.
In the X- II-XIII centuries, the centralization of the country increased, and this caused further development of the economy and the growth of cities. The economic cohesion of the country, its centralization was accompanied by the consolidation of the population: by merging the ancient Anglo-Saxon population with the Normans who came from France, a new, English ethnic community was formed. If earlier the common people in the mass spoke Anglo-Saxon, and the royal nobility-in French, now there was a transition from bilingualism to a new unified language, formed on the basis of the London dialect of Anglo-Saxon under the very strong influence of French.
The Norman conquest had little effect on the northern regions of Britain. Here, in the IX-XI centuries, a separate state was formed-Scotland, where the formation of the Scottish ethnic community took place. This community was formed on the basis of ancient tribes-Anglo-Saxons and Jutes, who settled the southern regions of Scotland.
The Welsh people formed at this time included mainly Celtic tribes of the Britons. The mountains protected the Celts from the hostile Anglo-Saxons, and later the Normans. The conquerors settled mainly in the south and valleys of central Wales, while the north of the peninsula remained in the possession of the indigenous population.
Already in the XII-XIV centuries. England made the first attempts to subjugate the Celtic peoples of the island. After a stubborn struggle XIII, Wales was annexed to England at the end of the 13th century. In the same century, the English tried to conquer Scotland, but as a result of the national liberation war, the Scots managed to defend their independence for several centuries.
The commodity-money relations that permeated the English countryside gradually destroyed the feudal system. This process was significantly influenced by the development of the wool industry, which needed raw materials. Most of the wool received from sheep farms was exported to other countries, but the first processing enterprises appeared in England itself. In the country's agriculture, sheep breeding began to develop rapidly. The seizure of communal land by the feudal lords to establish sheep farms on it, and the intensification of the process of differentiation in the countryside sharply intensified the class struggle and caused a number of anti-feudal uprisings. In the first half of the 15th century, most English peasants were already freed from serfdom, and their duties were limited to cash payments.
A major blow to the feudal system was caused by the war between two rival dynasties - Lancaster and York, called in history the War of the Roses (1455-1485). In this struggle, both were killed.
dynasties, a lot of old feudal nobility, and a new dynasty reigned on the throne - Tudor, which begins the period of absolute monarchy in England.
The place of the old nobility is gradually taken by a new nobility-gentry, connected with trade and close to the emerging bourgeoisie in their interests. Landlords and gentry increasingly began to seize the land of their peasants, turning them into sheep farms. Fencing was a prerequisite for the development of capitalism in England: they were a form of initial capital accumulation.
Especially the development of foreign trade contributed to the accumulation of capital. For markets, England had to fight a war with Spain, the largest colonial power at that time. After the defeat 1588 of the Spanish fleet by the British in 1588 - the "Invincible Armada" - England becomes a strong maritime power and begins colonial conquests. At the beginning of the 17th century, the first English colony on the east coast of North America and the first settlement on the island of Barbados in the West Indies were founded.
Foreign trade was associated not only with the seizure of foreign possessions, but also with piracy, which became particularly widespread at the end of the XV-beginning of the XVI century.
Under the Tudors, especially in the reign of Elizabeth 1, English absolutism was strongly strengthened. Already during the reign of one of the first kings of this dynasty - Henry VIII-there was a break with the Roman Catholic Church, and in England a state church was created - the English church, whose head was the English king.
By the end of the sixteenth century, the contradictions between rapidly developing capitalism and the feudal - absolutist system of England began to deepen. The development of capitalism was hindered by feudal orders,
the dominance of the feudal aristocracy in the political life of the country. This conflict led to the bourgeois revolution of the seventeenth century. The clash between the two classes - the bourgeoisie and the feudal aristocracy - took the form of a struggle between the new Protestant religion against Catholicism and the state English Church, which in many ways was close to Catholicism and defended feudalism. In the course of the civil war, King Charles I was defeated and executed, and a bourgeois democratic republic was formed in the country. However, the republic did not last long. The growth of revolutionary sentiment among the masses of the people and their struggle for more radical changes frightened the bourgeoisie, and the revolution was not completed. In 1653 1653, the military dictatorship of Oliver Cromwell came to power, and after his death, the monarchy was restored, and Charles II ascended the English throne. II Stewart. But the Starts were supporters of absolutism and Catholicism, which caused opposition from the bourgeoisie and the new nobility. The king's opponents became known as "Whigs" and his supporters as "Tories". In 1688. As a result of the "bloodless", as it is also called the Slavic Revolution, the Stuarts were deposed, and William of Orange became the English king. The power of the king was limited, and the rights and privileges of the new ruling class-the bourgeoisie - were strengthened.
The bourgeois Revolution was one of the most important milestones in English history: it consolidated the victory of capitalism in England and created favorable conditions for its economic development. It was an important stage in the completion of the process of forming the English nation.
However, the revolution ended with a peculiar compromise between the bourgeoisie and the feudal aristocracy. This can partly explain the many specific features of the English bourgeois way of life that developed over the next few centuries: conservatism, careful observance of old traditions, respect for pedigrees and titles, etc.
The revolution led to the rapid development of agriculture. Capitalist relations also permeated the countryside. The agrarian upheaval, in particular the ever-increasing process of enclosure, led to the mass dispossession of the peasants, and by the end of the eighteenth century the peasantry had virtually disappeared as a class. The capitalist economy could not absorb the entire mass of the former peasants, so there was a large surplus of labor, so necessary for developing industry.
The British bourgeoisie also sought to strengthen its international position, to acquire new markets and new sources of raw materials for its industry. Therefore, the country's colonial expansion is expanding. The English ruling class, first of all, sought to increase their possessions at the expense of other peoples who inhabited the British Isles. In the 17th century, after a long and stubborn struggle, the conquest of Ireland, which became an English colony, was completed.
For several centuries, the Scottish state courageously defended its independence. Only in 1707 1707 did the Anglo-Scottish Union finally secure the annexation of Scotland to England. From these two united states received a new name - Great Britain.
During the conquest of Scotland and Ireland, the British tried to eradicate their national culture, and the population of these states was forcibly assimilated. As a result, over time, these peoples have largely lost the specifics of their culture, their language and adopted many features of the English culture, but their national identity has been preserved to this day.
In the XVIII century, the external expansion of Great Britain continued. The overseas colonies she conquered (North America, India, Ceylon, and a number of territories in Africa) were one of the most important sources of capital accumulation.
1.2 English home culture

In the UK, more than in any other European country, there is still a commitment to the traditions, everyday life and habits that have been established from time immemorial. This affects many aspects of the material and spiritual culture of the population. There remains, for example, the desire of the British to live separately, in a separate house, which is reflected in the layout of residential buildings. Even some apartment buildings are built so that each apartment has its own entrance. Therefore, the UK is still a country of mostly low-rise construction. Old residential buildings often consist of a long two-story brick structure with many doors, usually painted in different colors, since they belong to different owners. Many English houses are characterized by a vertical arrangement of apartments on two or even three floors. On the first floor there is usually a kitchen-dining room, on the second - one or two bedrooms.

In the past, houses were heated by a fireplace - coal or gas. Each fireplace had a separate chimney, and therefore on the roofs of old houses and now you can often see many chimneys of different heights and shapes. However, central heating is now becoming more widespread, so that residents of London and other major cities have become less affected by the famous English smog.
In the XX century, new neighborhoods appeared in cities, in which modern apartment buildings were built, but many separate two-story cottages for 1-2 families are also being built, where, as a rule, more affluent people live. There are still relatively few high-rise buildings in the UK. Interestingly, even in large buildings, apartments on the top floors are often built on two levels. In such houses, the traditional fireplace is also preserved, although now it is gas or electric.
In small English towns, some streets are still often built up with small, mostly two-story frame houses. Their massive oak frame is usually filled in with either stone or wattle; the exterior walls are plastered and painted - either entirely or so that the frame is visible, which is sometimes painted black. Newer buildings are made of brick.
Very picturesque are the old country houses, which differ in their originality in each county. Depending on the building materials available in a particular area, the walls of these houses were built either from limestone slabs, or from pebbles bonded with lime, or from stones. There are also a lot of frame buildings in rural areas that are similar to urban ones. But gradually they become dilapidated and are replaced by brick ones.
The roofs of rural houses are usually rafters, gable roofs, high and steep, usually tiled-water flows faster from such roofs during frequent rains here. Some of the rural houses are still thatched.
Outbuildings are completely separated from the dwelling house; they either surround the courtyard on three sides, or are built in a row parallel to the house, and on farms they are often randomly placed on the estate. On large farms, there are several farm workers ' huts next to the farmer's house. Housing conditions for this large category of workers are very difficult. Their small, often dilapidated houses belong to the owner, and if an employee is fired, his family is homeless.
The farm and its surrounding grounds are usually surrounded by a hedge, and in some areas by a low wall made of stone.
Since the time of feudalism in Great Britain, many medieval castles belonging to large landowners, representatives of the highest aristocracy, have been preserved. Surrounded by extensive ancient parks, they look very picturesque. Inside, many castles are decorated with sculptures, paintings, and antique furniture. In recent years, some owners of castles have turned them into a kind of museum: for a fee, visitors are allowed to visit them on certain days and hours.

2. 1.3 Ancient life and costume of Anglo-Saxons and Englishmen

The gloom of semi-obscure prehistoric antiquity, in which Scandinavia was immersed, dissipates only by the end of the VIII century. Its oldest population belonged to the Chud tribe. It lived near the coast and hunted forest, coastal and water animals.

In addition to animal skins, tanned leather, wool and hemp fabrics, as well as fabrics consisting of a mixture of animal hair and plant fibers were used for clothing.
At the turn of the XI and XII centuries, short kaftans and capes came into use. Since ancient times, the clothing of the common people consisted of a wide hat, a green and gray caftan with a hood, and canvas trousers that were tightly laced around the legs. Instead of lacing, stockings and shoes were also used.
Women's clothing for a long time hardly differed from men's; it was designated by the same names, the difference began only with the appearance of foreign clothing.
The weapons of the Scandinavian Vikings were better than the weapons of neighboring peoples. It consisted of a round or oblong shield, a carapace, a helmet, a short sword with grooves on the blade, a long straight double-edged sword, as well as an axe, a spear, a club and a bow and arrow.
Viking boats were made of oak, flat-bottomed, pointed in front and rear, without a deck, and adapted to both rowing and sailing. The prow of the Viking boat rose high above the water and had carvings of dragon and snake heads. According to this decoration - the head of a dragon or snake - Viking boats were called "dragons"or " snakes".
From the mixture of the Germans, united under the name of the Anglo-Saxons, with the earlier inhabitants of the British Isles - the Celts and the Norman conquerors, the English people originated.
The oldest weapons of the British were made of bone and flint. Phoenician and Gallic traders brought bronze swords, spearheads, and arrowheads to the country.
The Highland tribes, the Picts and Scots, wrapped a piece of tartan cloth around their waists so that it covered their bodies up to their knees. The larger piece was folded lengthwise in two, first wrapped around the stomach, and then the end of it was thrown over the left shoulder. The poor wore clothes of black and white cloth, the rich-of colorful flowers. Blue was the favorite color of the Scots, but they also liked to use green and black fabrics with red stripes. The mountain blanket was a large cloak that tightly encircled the body; in ancient times it was colored, and by the end of the Middle Ages it was brown, the color of heather. Trousers were also adopted by the Scots. They were knitted like stockings or made of a checkered woolen cloth, tightly fitting to the body and fringed to the full length.
The ancient Irish people were completely different in dress and customs from their British relatives. They retained their original clothing during the period when Britain was successively the prey of the Romans, Anglo-Saxons, and Normans. Men wore long trousers with a tight cord at the waist (at the ankles they fit snugly to the body and then plugged into high shoes). They also used a cloak that was fastened on the chest or shoulder, and a cloak with a hood that fell over both shoulders and reached to the elbows.
The clothes were usually black, because most of them were made from the wool of the Irish sheep.
Women's clothing is similar to men's, with the exception of pants, and it had a large width and length. Noble women wore veils that were fixed in their hair with a gold pin.
Ornaments and weapons similar to those found in England were used in all parts of Ireland. The ancient Irish wore rings around their necks, chains and bracelets made of gold and silver, swords, battle axes, and spears and javelins made of bronze. From the Danes, they borrowed a steel battle-axe and a round, iron-bound shield of red color.
Men's clothing of the Anglo-Saxons up to the IX century consisted of a shirt, tunic, cloak, shoes and heels around the feet.
Here were added later and introduced by the Romans short pants to the knees and stockings. A rather short cloak was usually worn over the tunic.
Despite the foggy skies of Britain, the Anglo-Saxons of later times loved bright colors, especially red, blue and green.
Anglo-Saxons also practiced tattooing after the Norman invasion, despite the wrath of priests and the law. The hair on his forehead was parted in the middle and fell loosely over his shoulders, and the beard was combed in two like a fork.
Men used jewelry items in large numbers: bracelets made of precious metals and ivory, belts made of gold and decorated with precious stones, necklaces made of amber, brooches, rings and buckles.
The women's robes were wide and wavy. For protection from the weather, women wore a tight-fitting long pencil case and a canvas or silk handkerchief. The woman's hair was twisted into long curls or curled. Gloves probably came into use only at the turn of the tenth and eleventh centuries; before that time, they were replaced by long sleeves.
The main weapon of the Anglo-Saxons was the axe, which they used more than other peoples. And the most common image on their military badges was a flying dragon. Images of the dragon were also used by the Danubian peoples and the Lombards, since the dragon was a symbolic opponent of the Roman eagle.
The Saxons became the prey of the Normans, who crossed to them in 1066 1066 from Normandy under the command of William the Conqueror, influencing the life and clothing of the Angles.
Normandy men wore a knee-length tunic, a rectangular cloak, long trousers that turned into socks, and bandages wrapped around their shins. They also wore shoes that reached to their ankles, and later-short boots, a cap like a cap and a hood attached to the tunic.
There were several changes in the Norman women's costume compared to the Anglo-Saxon one. They wore a long lower tunic, and over it a dress, the sleeves of which were very narrow and therefore cut from the bottom side and were adapted for fastening or lacing so that a white shirt showed through between the cords. The borders of the dresses were made of gold and very wide.
And in the Norman military dress, various innovations were noticeable. The Norman helmet had a conical or semi-egg-shaped shape, was equipped with a nose shield, and sometimes a shield that protected the back of the head. The shield was leather-bound and metal-edged, and the background was painted with dragons, vultures, snakes, and lions. The saddle had very high front and rear bows, curved in an arc and protecting the rump and lower chest of the rider.
The Normans of the retinue of William the Conqueror were known for their passion for luxurious costumes. Their shoes ended in pointed noses shaped like the beaks, tails of scorpions, and even ram's horns. Her hair grew out and was parted in the middle above her forehead. To those who were denied a rich head of hair by nature, they replaced it with a wig. In this state, with their long hair, wide flowing robes, and pointed shoes, the Anglonormans no longer looked like their Normandy ancestors.

3. 1.4 Folk and modern costumes

In such an economically developed country as Great Britain, the old folk clothes have long been forgotten. Some semblance of it is preserved now only in stylized folk costumes of participants of dance and choral groups, members of the national folk dance society. The majority of the British population today wears a dress of a pan-European cut. But with all the leveling that takes place in the clothing of Europeans, it still has its own specific features for each nation. The expression "English style" or "English costume" is often used. The traditional English style of clothing is characterized by elegance, austerity and simplicity of cut lines, the absence of unnecessary details and small ornaments, soft, calm tones of fabrics; sportswear is popular.

There are still some professional differences in clothing and its details in the UK. Workers usually wear caps, and dockworkers in port cities also wear a colorful scarf around their necks; many elderly farmers prefer to wear long-out-of-fashion three-piece suits and felt hats. Even now, in the business districts of the City, you can see clerks dressed according to a long tradition exactly the same: narrow striped trousers, a black jacket, a high white collar, a bowler hat on their head, and in their hands the invariable black umbrella.
In some, mostly official cases, medieval clothing is also used. Vintage costumes are worn, for example, by members of the royal family during the coronation ceremony and officials of Parliament during the opening days of the session. Judges and lawyers in court sit in robes, and their heads are covered with a medieval powdered wig. Black robes with scarlet lining and square black caps are worn by professors and students of the oldest English universities. The Royal Guard still wears the form of the XVI century.
Folk costume is still preserved in some areas of Scotland. So, the ceremonial costume of the highlander-gael is very peculiar. It consists of a white linen shirt with a turn-down collar, a checkered knee-length skirt in a large fold (kilt), a short cloth jacket with lapels and a plaid that is thrown over one shoulder. On the feet are worn knee socks and thick rough shoes with metal buckles, and on the head-a dark beret with a wide checkered band. The kilt and plaid are made of a special tartan or tartan cloth, previously each Scottish clan had its own color scheme of this fabric. Since the end of the XVIII century. this clothing became the uniform of the Scottish Guards regiments .
The development of a national movement among Scots revived interest in Celtic culture. Leaders of this movement seek to emphasize the difference between Scottish culture and English, its originality. That is why attention was drawn to the Gaelic folk dress; the kilt, plaid, and tartan became the national dress of all Scots. Now the kilt is worn by many teenage boys, it is also worn by adult Scots, going on hiking trips, national holidays and sports games. The kilt is also worn on official occasions by officials of Scottish institutions.

4. 1.5 Food

In the process of leveling everyday life, which is happening more and more intensively every year, food retains the greatest ethnic stability; some traditional features of English cuisine are still preserved. English meat dishes have gained the greatest popularity; for example, roast beef and steak are included in the menu of restaurants in all European countries.

However, in a working environment, meat is only served for Sunday lunch. On weekdays, they eat more fish - fresh or smoked, which is boiled before use. They are very fond of fried fish and potatoes, which are often sold and eaten right on the streets. Vegetables do not really diversify the English table; most often potatoes, turnips and cabbage are prepared. But they eat a lot of cereal dishes. Almost no breakfast is complete without oatmeal porridge (porridge) or wheat, and sometimes cornflakes with milk.
The national dish of the English is various puddings. Meat and cereal puddings are served as a second course, and sweet - fruit and berry puddings areserved for dessert. In the UK, people generally eat a lot of sweets.
During the holidays, the English table becomes much more plentiful. Some traditional dishes are served only on certain holidays. At Christmas, for example, it is mandatory to prepare plum pudding and roast turkey (and in Scotland and the north of England - goose). This dish is very expensive, so many housewives from low-income families are forced to buy Christmas turkey on credit. Of the drinks, tea is most common. It is drunk at breakfast, after lunch, and in the evening. Tea is brewed strong, drink it sweet, usually with milk. In recent years, the British have started to consume quite a lot of coffee. Of the alcoholic beverages, beer is the most popular; especially popular varieties are light light ale and strong black porter. Even outside the country, English spirits are known. A lot is exported, for example, the Scottish national drink - whiskey. To combat drunkenness, alcoholic beverages are sold only at strictly defined hours.

5. 1.6 Marriage and family

Marriage is one of the most important forms of human relationships, which has passed a very complex and long path of development. Like any official phenomenon, the establishment of the institution of marriage took place under the influence of socio-economic relations that prevailed among the British at one time or another, and it is natural that marriage acquired the form that more met their requirements. I want to give you some information about nineteenth-century English marriage.

Entering into a marital state took many forms: a written one, legally fixed; a contract-between parents, which stipulated financial obligations and related to the dowry (wedding needs); oral promises of partners, pronounced in the presence of witnesses; a church wedding, in which the mutual consent of those who entered into marriage was publicly certified and the union received a formal blessing; sexual fulfillment of marital relations.
Since 1754, there was a provision in England under which only a wedding in the church established the full legality of the marriage union when recorded in the parish register with the signatures of both partners . But in 1863, despite the fierce opposition of the clergy, civil marriage was allowed and licenses were again introduced .
The average age of marriage in the 19th century ranged from 27 to 29 years.
The average length of marriage ranged from 17 to 20 years.
In nineteenth-century English society, there was a strong prejudice against a girl marrying someone who was not her own nationality; for an English girl to marry a foreigner meant admitting her complete failure. In general, English society in the nineteenth century consisted of families with a homogeneous national composition, which could not be affected by sporadic cases of nationally mixed marriages.
During the XVII-XIX centuries. those who had a sufficient income in the population have two main motives: the commercial basis for marriage and the love or affection of those who entered into a marriage union.
The attitude to premarital cohabitation among the British throughout the XIX century was negative.
In well-to-do farming circles, from the 16th to the 80s of the 19th century, there was a strict control of parents or guardians over the choice of a marriage partner by children. But the freedom to choose a marriage partner gradually began to develop in the middle of the XIX century, and to a greater extent this applied to men than to women.
In the 19th century, marriages of a socially mixed nature began to occur. They were called "non-standard" marriages.
Since the middle of the 19th century in England, there has been a tendency to reduce the number of families. At the beginning of the 19th century, most families had four or more children, but by the end of the 19th century, such families are a minority.
The development of capitalist relations, the late age of married people-these and other reasons led to the fact that in the XIX century the traditional wedding ceremony almost completely disappeared and was preserved only in certain areas of England. But the engagement was observed in all strata of English society, although the period betweenthe engagement,at which the betrothal oftheyoung takes place, and the wedding, for the reasons mentioned above, lasts very long, up to 7-8 years.
In a more pure form and almost everywhere, not wedding rites were preserved, but pre-marital beliefs and customs among young people who lived long enough in one team and in one place. These customs were most clearly manifested in various kinds of divination and beliefs timed to certain days.
At the end of St. Agnes 'Day (January 20-21), which is patroness of young girls, in Derbyshire, Yorkshire, Durheim, Corfol, Northumbermead and other English cities, girls read fortunes for "night silence", spring water, stockings and bandages folded crosswise, shoes placed with their toes to the bed, etc.
Especially noteworthy is divination on the "dumb pie". Refraining from eating and talking, the girl made a so-called "dumb-cake" ofcakeflour, salt and water in different proportions at night, on the eve of St. Agnes ' Day. After baking, each girl took half of the pie, walking backwards to the bed, ate the pie, hoping to see her future husband in a dream.
On Valentine's Day (February 14), the girl, having met the first man, believed that he would become her husband. As early as the 15th and 16th centuries, it was believed in England that people, like birds, chose their mating partners on this day. Since the 19th century, in Norfolk, Thurfordshire, and Yorkshire, boys have been sending girls gifts in the form of elegant trinkets.. In Derbyshire and Lannashire, rural lads and girls gathered together to draw lots for a year's worth of "imaginary spouses", after which the day ended with a feast and dancing.
Divination with grass for the betrothed was also attempted in our days by St. John the Baptist. David.
Divination onthe promised husbandorpromised wife was also practicedon May Eve (April 30): on hawthorn bunches, on snails, on the full moon.
All these types of divination reflected the remnants of pre-Christian beliefs of the British: at the same time, some of them were also a kind of courtship. So, an unusual form of courtship was an old custom called "tied in a knot", observed in the XIX century. the Welsh and English. The clothed young man and girl were tied with a rope with a fixed knot and put to bed. If one of them didn't want to tie his life to the other, he would untie the knot at night. If by morning the knot turned out to be intact, then young people were recognized as potential bride and groom.
The choice of the day and month of the wedding (wedding) was not indifferent to the British in the XIX century. May was generally considered a bad month for marriages and weddings. The conclusion of a marriage in great lent also foreshadowed failure. The most favorable time for this business was considered to be the week after Trinity Day. Of all the days, Wednesday was called the most successful day.
Traditions ruledthe entire weddingdayday. Along the route of the wedding train (marriage process), flowers were scattered, mainly marsh iris, rosemary, marigolds. Often the path was strewn with reeds and wheat. In addition to the bride and groom, the wedding train included their parents, bridesmaids, friends of the groom, and relatives. The bridesmaids, usually as many as six people, were dressed in dresses of the bride's own design and color, and her mother had to pay for them. Among the bridesmaids, there was always the main one (best maid), who carried the bride's bouquet and was located behind her during the wedding ceremony.
All these people gathered in the morning at the house of the future newlyweds. They went to church accompanied by musicians. Many wedding songs were performed. The wedding train circled the church three times in a clockwise direction, for good luck. It was considered unfortunate if the clock struck during the wedding.
When arriving at the church and before entering it, many ancient customs were previously observed: the bride and groom jumped over a pew placed across the entrance to the church. At the same time, the bride lost the bandage from her leg and the men picked her up and walked around the church in triumph. In Somerset, a rope decorated with flowers was stretched across the path of a wedding train, or a church gate was locked in front of them. In these cases, the groom must redeem the path with money.
The wedding was to take place within three months of the announcement in a church decorated with white flowers and blue ornaments in the middle of the east window. After the wedding ceremony, the newlyweds (the gong couple) solemnly descended from the altar steps and, accompanied by their parents, relatives, and bridesmaids, went to the vestry to sign the certificate (marriage lines). All these elements of the wedding passed from the XIX century to the XX century in an unconventional form, despite the fact that at the same time there was an incomplete ceremony caused by certain circumstances, as, for example, described in the novel "Great Expectations"by Charles Dickens. At Wemlyn's wedding to Miss Skiffix, the only people present were the groom's father, who played the role of a planted father, Wemlyn's best man, and a small, flimsy doorkeeper in a baby's cap who pretended to be Miss Skiffix's bosom friend.
The wedding usually took place between 8 am and 12 pm.
In the wedding feast (bridal), the main role was given to the cake (bride’'s cane, wedding cane;). The wedding never ended without a cake, and it was common all over England.
In Devon, the cake was watered with boiling water and the bride soaked her shoes in it for good luck.
This, in fact, was the end of the entire wedding cycle; the newlyweds had only a moral obligation-to give gifts later to those who would marry in the future and who brought them gifts for the wedding .
Throughout the 19th century, the most common color for brides was whiteweddingdressdress. From the 1840s to the 1880s, a high-collared dress was worn. The material chosen was mostly dense-heavy silk, velvet, and satin. White lace was sewn on it.
Men from the 20s of the XIX century. for the ceremony, they wore frock coats with long tails and a short waist, blue in color, narrow tights from tights that did not reach a little to the ankles, black stockings and patent shoes; since the 30s, long black trousers with stripes and tailcoats made of black satin with white elements. In the 50s, men wore a jacket instead of a tailcoat.
Summing up, it can be stated that the British in the XIX century functioned simultaneously several types of marriage.
The marriages had their origins in the post-Reformation era. The policy of the Church and state bodies, beginning in the 16th and late 19th centuries, played an active role in the preservation and development of the types of marriages described above.XVI и конца XIX yet new germs of emotional relationships, which had already emerged on a different basis, continued to develop among the British in the nineteenth century.

6. 1.7 Spiritual culture

Over the centuries, the UK has developed a rich and diverse culture that is well-known all over the world. Of all the cultural values created by the English people, the richest is English literature, which has had a great influence on the development of all world literature.

Original English epics, poetry and drama developed from the Middle Ages on the basis of folk poetry. Its most common genre - is a ballad of historical, epic or lyrical content, performed to the accompaniment of a lute or other musical instrument. Especially well-known among the people is the cycle of ballads about the adventures of a free hunter, a defender of the poor and a fighter against injustice Robin Hood and his "green brothers". The origin of this cycle of ballads dates back to the XIII century. English and Scottish ballads of lyrical and epic content are peculiar. It is characteristic that many folk songs were created by workers; especially interesting are old mining songs.
The founder of English literature is considered to be J. R. R. Tolkien. Chaucer, especially known for his Canterbury Tales, which depict English life in the 14th century.
In the XV-XVI centuries, during the birth of the capitalist mode of production, there was a rapid development of a new bourgeois culture with an anti-feudal orientation. A characteristic feature of this Renaissance period was the development of humanism - the image in art of the real world, of a person living in this world. The first representative of humanism in England was the founder of utopian socialism. Thomas More. A particularly important milestone in the development of English literature of this period was the work of the great playwright and poet W. Shakespeare, who still remains an unsurpassed master of depicting the complexity of the spiritual world and human feelings.
During the establishment of the bourgeois-aristocratic monarchy in England after the victory of the bourgeois revolution, a bourgeois novel was born, one of the creators of which was D. Defoe. In his world-famous book "Robinson Crusoe", he praises the creative powers of representatives of the new class, their activities. But in the same period, a book by the famous satirist of England, J. R. R. Tolkien, appears. Swift's "Gulliver's Journey", in which a critique of bourgeois reality was made for the first time. It was a scathing satire on English society at the time.
In Great начале XIX Britain, as in other European countries, disillusionment with bourgeois reality and the consequences of the bourgeois revolution was expressed in the direction of romanticism in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Romantic writers were attracted to science fiction, past historical epochs, strong passions, and folk art. The most typical romantic work of this era was the "Poems of Ossian" - a free stylized translation of Celtic folk tales by the Scottish poet J. R. R. Tolkien. By MacPherson. Another Scottish writer - Walter Scott became the creator of the historical novel genre. Finally, the original poetry of the national poet of Scotland, Robert Burns, gained world fame. The true democracy and nationality of his poetry are closely linked to the progressive ideals of the enlightenment of the eighteenth century. The main representative of the social and everyday satirical comedy of morals was R. Sheridan, who sharply revealed the vices of modern society in his play "School of Slander".
Revolutionary Romanticism, whose representatives expressed in their works a protest against bourgeois-aristocratic society and a struggle for human freedom, was characteristic of the works of the English poets D. Byron and P. Shelley.
The growth of industrial capitalism and the first mass political movement of the working class - Chartism-left their mark on the development of English literature in the 30-50s of the XIX century. The democratic movement of this period paved the way for the development of critical realism. Its main representatives were Ch. Dickens, W. Thackeray, who created unique pictures of the life of bourgeois society at that time. Critical realism is also developed in the works of later writers, such as T. Hardy, who wrote about the life of rural England.
Along with realism, since the end of the 19th century, the adventure genre has become widespread in English literature. P.'s adventure novels became widely known.P The works of J. P. Stevenson ("Treasure Island" and others), pseudo-historical novels by R. Hatgart ("King Solomon's Mines"), novels and short stories by the creator of the detective genre A. Conan Doyle.
In the era of imperialism, there are more and more reactionary tendencies in literature, which, for example, found expression in the works of the glorifier of the colonial expansion of England, R. Kipling. But at the same time, the realistic direction continues to develop. A true description of the Pharisaic bourgeois society is given in the works of the writer and poet O. Wilde and the famous playwright B. Shaw. The work of H. G. Wells is peculiar, who created a series of science-fiction novels that emphasize the contradictory nature of the development of science and technology in the conditions of bourgeois society.
In the 20th century, most English writers continue the best realistic traditions of classical English literature. Among them isJ. R. R. Tolkien. Galsworthy, who created vivid true pictures of bourgeois life ("The Forsyte Saga"), Somerset Maugham, R. Aldington, A. Cronin and others. The famous English writer and playwright J. R. R. Tolkien touches on social themes in his works. Priestley. Novels on moral and everyday topics, such as the works of G. Green ("The Quiet American", "Our Man in Havana"), have become very popular. The modern social and intellectual life of Great Britain was reflected in the series of his novels "Strangers and Brothers" by Ch. Snow. In recent decades, a new generation of realist writers has entered English literature, dubbed " angry young men." Their most typical representative is the playwright J. R. R. Tolkien. Osborne, who created the hugely acclaimed play Look Back in Anger. The works of writers of this school reflected the discontent of young people with the hopelessness and hypocrisy of bourgeois life. Acute social and political problems will be introduced in his novels by J. R. R. Tolkien. Aldridge ("The Diplomat" and others), J. Sommerfield ("May Day"). Among the authors of the modern "working" novel, the most famous are A. Sillitoe ("Saturday Evening and Sunday Morning") and S. Barstow ("Love ... love"). English fine art has also given the world a lot of talented artists. Among the oldest masters of his pan-European fame are the portrait painters of the XVIII century A. Ramsay, J. Reynolds, X Rehburn et al. But especially famous for English painting were the talented landscape painters of the late XVIII - early XIX centuries, W. Turner and J. R. R. Tolkien. The constable. These realist traditions in art are continued by the leading artists of the 20th century, among whom the group of so-called social realists of the 1950s stands out in particular. Graphic artists P. Hogarth, E. Ardizon, painters L. Lauri, D. Grieve, sculptors L. Bradshaw, B. Rea and others created a number of realistic works, many of which are dedicated to the struggle for peace, truthfully depict the life of the people. X's sculptures, often made in an abstract manner, but plastically expressive, are widely known. X. Mura. English music occupies a smaller place in world culture. Although musical life in the UK has always been developed, the country has produced few well-known composers to the world. The German composer G. F. Handel (1685-1759), who lived in London for fifty years of his life, did a lot for the development of English musical culture. His operas based on ancient and biblical themes, and especially his oratorios, have absorbed many motifs of English folk music and old English choral culture. From the XVIII B. most English composers worked in the opera or choral (oratorio) genres. Among the most prominent composers of the older generation of modern England are W. Walton, L. Barkley and others. A special place in the musical art of Great Britain is occupied by the work of composer B. Britten, who has received international recognition. His operas "Albert Gerring", "The Little Chimney Sweep", "A Midsummer Night's Dream" are included in the repertoire of many opera houses in Europe. The art of choral singing has been greatly developed in the country; the passion for choral singing is especially characteristic of the Welsh people. Wind music is also common. Contests and competitions of amateur brass bands are often organized. In recent years, pop music has gained particular popularity. The world-famous vocal and instrumental pop ensemble "Beatles", which performed in the 60s. Rock and pop music festivals held periodically always attract a lot of young people. The English drama theater was born as a church theater; theatrical performances were part of a religious ritual. Later, in the Renaissance, it increasingly takes on a secular character, becoming professional. In the 16th century, the Globe Theatre hosted the Shakespeare Company, which staged plays by the great English playwright.
English theater in the XX century developed mainly on a realistic basis. The system of K. S. Stanislavsky, the director's works of F. F. Komissarzhevsky and E. B. Vakhtangov had a considerable influence on him. Prominent English directors P. Brooke, P. Hall, J. Barton, B. Miles have staged plays by B. Shaw, S. Maugham, J. Priestley, P. Ustinov, D. Mercer, A. Wesker and other contemporary English playwrights in recent decades. Such masters of the stage as S. Turndike, J. Gielgud, L. Olivier, A. Guinness, F. Robson, P. Scoffield, R. Burton, D. Tyutin, A. Finney have gained great popularity.

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