International Criminal Law
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the minds of the jury members. Civil law countries often have judges on the bench
who determine the case with or without lay members. Judges are trained to give
appropriate weight to the evidence that is presented before them. Another reason is
that common law jurisdictions are reluctant to rely on indirect evidence. It is at the
heart of adversarial proceedings to have witnesses testify of their own knowledge
rather than to rely too heavily on documents or out-of-court statements. Although
contemporary civil law systems tend to rely more on court proceedings than in
previous years, restrictions on the admission of evidence are still rare.
The approach of the ad hoc tribunals is more in line with the civil law approach in
this respect. The civil law influence becomes apparent when carefully examining the
Rules. Rule 89 is the most striking example, although the terminology directly stems
from common law, thus, presumably also its interpretation. Also a number of other
Rules, and through the adoption of new Rules and amendment of old Rules increasingly
so, are rooted in civil law. Indeed, rr 71 and 92
bis,
allowing for indirect evidence, find
their basis in the civil law tradition. These Rules are both very broad. Rule 71 requires
that the admission is in the interest of justice and in the ICTR that there are exceptional
circumstances. Rule 92
bis,
on the other hand, has no such requirements and covers
practically any form of evidence. Although the Rule only applies to evidence relating
to matters ‘other than the acts and conduct of the accused as charged in the indictment’,
evidence submitted in accordance with r 92
bis
‘needs to bear some evidentiary value
related to the issues at stake’.
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Moreover, r 93, which allows for the admission of
evidence of a ‘consistent pattern of conduct relevant to serious violations of
international humanitarian law’, is more civil law influenced. Whilst civil law systems
generally allow the admission of evidence of previous misconduct of the alleged
perpetrator, such is prohibited in common law jurisdictions.
The only exclusionary rule that has been incorporated in the Rules of the ICTY
and ICTR constitutes r 95, allowing for the exclusion of evidence that has been
obtained irregularly where this has had an impact on its reliability or the integrity of
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