SOVIET RULE AND THE DELINEATION OF BORDERS 103
with various forces and factions within the society. This was epitomized by the
New Economic Policy (NEP), which allowed non-proletarian
organizations to
operate in the economic,
administrative, and cultural realms. In the culturally
alien periphery, including Turkestan, the Bolsheviks pursued a similar strategy of
multi-sided alliances.
The combination of more active military operations and tactical collaborations
with various local factions enabled the Soviet government to establish firm control
over the Ferghana Valley. By abandoning its brutal approach, adopting more flexible
tactics, and utilizing reformist and anti-imperial rhetoric, the Bolsheviks managed
rather quickly to restore relations with the Central Asian elite. They engaged its
members as intermediaries with the Muslim community, as partners in the process
of reform and modernization, and as assistants in the imposition of new systems
of governance and control. While each side pursued its own interests, they both
wanted an end to hostilities and the restoration of stability.
The Soviet government signaled its willingness
to cooperate with the most
diverse groups, including Jadids from Bukhara and Turkestan, members of the
Kazakh intelligentsia who had received Russian educations, Muslim reformers,
nationalists, and others. With the help of a few timely concessions,
the Soviet
government co-opted members of these elites by giving them positions in gov-
ernment agencies and party institutions, and by granting them power in the local
administrations. In return, the Party demanded that the elites be loyal and parrot
the Bolsheviks’ class rhetoric.
This new approach consisted not only of deals and agreements but of deliber-
ate efforts to set various groups against each other. This resulted in direct clashes,
which in turn enabled the Soviet authorities to impose themselves as arbitrators. A
principal feature of the more conciliatory side of the policy was to recognize Islam
and incorporate it into the legal domain. Religious schools, sharia courts, and
waqfs
were all legalized, and Muslim institutions were granted the inalienable right to land
and immovable property.
19
By legalizing and preserving key Muslim institutions
in exchange for the Muslims’ loyalty, the government drew Muslim conservatives
to its side. In doing this the Soviet government pursued a policy similar to that of
the Russian empire, which also preserved and even legalized Muslim institutions
in return for the loyalty of Muslim elites.
According to 1927 data on the Uzbekistan part of the Ferghana Valley, there were
99 schools and 11 madrassas in the Khujand district, 162 schools and 37 madrassas
in Kokand district, 461 schools and 23 madrassas in the Andijan district, and 78
schools in the two southernmost cantons of Kyrgyzia.
20
Data from the
waqf depart-
ments of the People’s Commissariat of Education indicate that
waqf revenues for
the same year (excluding hidden costs) totaled 367 rubles for Khujand, 1,995 rubles
for Kokand, 258 rubles for Andijan, 255 rubles for Namangan, 212 for Margilan,
and 75 rubles for Kanibadam.
21
The actual assets of Muslim institutions were much
higher than these figures suggest, since mosques and madrassas maintained many
“off the books”
waqfs with tens of thousands of rubles in revenues.
104 ABASHIN, K.
ABDULLAEV, R. ABDULLAEV, KOICHIEV
An important Soviet initiative in the Ferghana Valley was the establishment of
“clerical administrations” (
mahkama-i-shariat) in the major cities and then in the
villages as well. The task of these bodies was to control the activities of the mosques.
They generally worked through proxies, a clerical fifth column in mosque organi-
zations who, according to one observer, “pushed through resolutions in support of
countries and peoples oppressed by the imperialists” and endlessly expressed their
allegiance to the Soviet government in order to gain its support.
22
A Communist
Party official wrote sarcastically that “For the greatest possible show, at a large
public meeting in Margilan they followed a reactionary speech by a Muslim cleric
with
the playing of the Internationale.”
23
The government helped these clerical stooges deal with the conservative reli-
gious elites, particularly the hereditary holy men or
ishans. Yet at the same time it
restrained them, preventing them from forming independent clerical administrations
and from communicating with Muslim clerics in central Russia. Soviet authorities
were particularly careful to observe the activities of reformers among them.
The Bolsheviks gradually managed to restore the Ferghana Valley’s economic
life. In order to restore the central Russian textile industry, the government became
interested in resuming large-scale cotton deliveries from the region. On its side,
the people of Ferghana needed grain and manufactured goods which they could
not obtain on their own. The resulting exchange contributed to social stability and
strengthened the authority of the Soviets, making them all the more resolute in their
efforts to reform society along the lines of their communist project.
The Bolsheviks aimed to create groups and forces through which they could
exercise control over the region, pursue reforms, and weaken unreliable and poten-
tially dangerous forces. Their approach combined administrative changes, attempts
to reform water-management,
financial subsidies, and efforts to “emancipate”
women. To the same end they also took up the redistribution of land. The chief tool
which the Soviets used to mobilize support for redistributing land along class lines
was the Union of Paupers and Day Laborers, or
Koshchi. In 1921 branches of this
Union were set up in all counties and districts of the Ferghana Valley. Its head was
Yuldash Akhunbabaev, who hailed from the outskirts of Margilan.
The first attempt at land and water reform in the Ferghana Valley was undertaken
in 1921 in the Kanibadam district of Kokand, the Jalalabad district of Andijan, and
in some areas of Osh County. One thousand six hundred and eighteen households
were exiled, most of them wealthy Russian and Ukrainian settlers (
kulaks), and
more than 45,000 hectares or 110,000 acres of land were confiscated and distributed
among members of Koshchi.
24
A still larger-scale land and water reform was attempted in 1925–26. The goal
was to transfer land from non-working households to farmers and paupers. In total,
about 136,000 hectares or 337,000 acres in the Ferghana Valley were transferred to
a land fund. The land was then distributed among 42,000 poor households.
25
These
economic reforms were not sweeping and did not fundamentally change conditions
within society, the status of its major groups, or system of governance. However,
SOVIET RULE AND THE DELINEATION OF BORDERS 105
they served a critical function of creating loyal factions and classes within the
population, advancing new leaders, and reallocating resources and power—all to
the benefit of the Soviet government.
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