Party of the USSR. Special delegations, sent to the region from Moscow, exam-
ined border disputes and adduced arguments on the ground. In 1926 Kyrgyzia
received the status of an autonomous republic within the Russian Federated Soviet
Republic, buts its lobbying capabilities were no match for those of Uzbekistan. In
addition to having received the status of a separate “union republic,” Uzbekistan
enjoyed strong support from statisticians and economists and had the ability to
exert influence in the capital. Notwithstanding this, Moscow sought to strike a
compromise while also taking into account the arguments of the weaker side.
Various commissions made decisions one after another, each new position being
subjected to a barrage of claims, counterclaims, and outright rejection, a pattern
repeated over and over. The resulting uncertainty caused a recurring escalation
of claims and fresh demands for the government to reconsider the entire issue.
37
But in May 1927, the Presidium of the All-Russian Central Executive Commit-
tee decided not to consider any petitions relating to delineation of borders for a
period of three years.
The debate over the border between Uzbekistan and the RSFSR, of which the
Kyrgyz Autonomous Region was a part until it became a republic, was not the
only issue in dispute. Within each “national territory” a complex process of ad-
ministrative delineation was under way throughout the mid-1920s, and especially
between 1925 and 1927. This process also gave rise to clashes over economic and
ethnic issues, with the stakes in their outcome being no less important than in the
inter-republic conflicts.
With respect to two important areas of the former Ferghana province that re-
mained within Uzbekistan, two options were under consideration: either to preserve
Andijan’s and Kokand’s previous status as two separate jurisdictions, or to merge
them into a single administrative district.
38
The choice fell on the second. This in
turn led to two further and very different options: either, first, to automatically
incorporate the former Andijan and Margilan districts into the Andijan region and
merge the Kokand and Namangan districts into the Kokand region, or, second,
to incorporate the predominantly agricultural eastern areas of Ferghana into the
Andijan region and move the more industrialized central and western parts of the
SOVIET RULE AND THE DELINEATION OF BORDERS 111
valley into the region of Kokand.
39
The government eventually chose the first of
these options. In a parallel move, Kyrgyzia created two new districts in its sector
of the Ferghana Valley—Osh and Jalalabad—and proceeded in 1926 to classify
them as provinces.
As the Bolsheviks conceived it, new internal borders were delineated in such
a way not only to meet the needs of agriculture, but also to respond to the eth-
nographic composition of the population and to the various groups claiming the
status of national minorities. True, the old regions were reorganized into something
akin to counties, and these in turn were reorganized into districts, then rural com-
munities, and then rural soviets. But overall, the borders of the new units were
fixed on the basis of the national composition of each area. As a member of the
Andijan revolutionary committee mentioned in a 1923 report: “When carrying out
the delineation the best we can do is strive to avoid situations in which a given
minority, unable to form an independent district of its own, is divided among sev-
eral jurisdictions. But even if members of a given minority constitute only part of
the population of a district, they will still have the opportunity of uniting within a
single rural community.”
40
The allocation of territories was to be based on the settlement patterns and the
population mix. Working on the delineation of borders in 1924–1925, officials
made use of existing statistics and the inaccurate 1917 census data. In 1926 the
government carried out an All-Union Census. This gave rise to a complex discus-
sion among scholars and officials about the ethnic and national composition of the
Central Asian population, and this debate in turn influenced the reconfiguration of
administrative borders in the region.
41
The census symbolically fixed the results
of the national delineation. Titular names such as “Kazakhs,” “Kara-Kalpaks,”
“Kyrgyz,” “Tajiks,” “Uzbeks,” and “Turkmens” were given to the majority popu-
lations of each of the corresponding republics and provinces. In this connection,
the most radical change occurred in Uzbekistan. There the term Uzbek was used
to designate not only the people formerly known as Sarts,
42
but also significant
numbers of Persian speakers residing in Samarkand, Bukhara and specific settle-
ments in the Ferghana Valley.
The 1926 Ferghana Valley census identified a small number of groups that had
the potential of becoming officially recognized minorities and of being classified
as such. Among these were the Kara-Kalpaks, Turks, Kurama, Kipchaks, Uyghurs
(Kashgaris), and others. Each of these groups produced its own activists who de-
manded their share of representation and resources at the local level.
The Persian-speaking people of the Ferghana Valley, namely the Tajiks—who
had been placed in the redrawn boundaries in Uzbekistan—were soon engulfed
by a rising tide of demands for some degree of national autonomy. Thus, when
residents of Kanibadam held a meeting in their town with the Chairman of the
All-Russian Central Executive Committee Mikhail Kalinin, in February 1925,
they declared their readiness to proclaim Kanibadam an autonomous Tajik district.
The government accepted their demand, and on April 15 the Central Executive
112 ABASHIN, K. ABDULLAEV, R. ABDULLAEV, KOICHIEV
Committee of Uzbekistan declared the Kanibadam an autonomous Tajik district.
From then on both official business and education in Kanibadam were conducted
in the Tajik language.
43
The Khujand region was formed by combining territories of the former Samar-
kand province (Khujand city) and some areas of the former Ferghana province (the
cities of Isfara, Kanibadam, and the village of Asht). This precinct brought together
areas that the 1926 Census reported as having a Tajik majority.
As in the case of Osh and Kyrgyzia, by no means all of the population welcomed
these changes. One declaration stated that:
Based on existing evidence, the Babadarkhan district (volost) Executive Commit-
tee hereby notes that it has allegedly been decided that the process of delineation
will result in the transfer of our district to the Khujand region. Such a decision
by the higher and pertinent authorities surely contradicts local conditions on the
following grounds: first, our district is situated far from Khujand, which naturally
presents some difficulties for the farming population to get from the district to
the regional center in Khujand; second, the people of our district without excep-
tion are displeased with this authorities’ decision. Surely the discontent of the
people of the district and of farmers, along with the problems that will face the
latter, certainly provide grounds for reconsidering and revoking the proposed
decision, which is unacceptable from the standpoint of the geography and condi-
tions of the locality. Concurrent with this, and in conformity with the proposals
and demands of the people of the district, our district should be annexed to the
Kokand region.
44
Because the delineation occurred within the boundaries of Uzbekistan and
did not concern relations between the republics, all of the conflicts and disputes
regarding the administrative boundaries of the Khujand district failed to gain a
hearing at the national political level. Thus, they remained merely an internal af-
fair of the republic.
The “Tajik issue” already had surfaced in the course of delineation in 1924. It
was originally intended to create a Tajik Autonomous Region within Uzbekistan
that would include areas of the former eastern Bukhara and some settlements and
cities of the former Samarkand province of the Turkestan republic. This resulted
in the creation of a Tajik Autonomous Region that also included a Badakhshan
Autonomous Region in the Pamirs. Areas in the western Ferghana Valley were also
mentioned in the delineation debates, since various censuses had reported that they
were also inhabited by Tajiks. But in the end it was decided that to avoid disrupting
established economic links the Ferghana territories should be left within Uzbekistan,
as the Tajiks there had closely intermingled with Uzbeks and other peoples.
This decision embodied the emphasis on economics that predominated at the
time among the national leadership. It also reflected the tendency to stress above
all the juxtaposition of settled and nomadic peoples, according to which any differ-
ences between the Uzbeks and Tajiks, since both were settled, were by definition
inconsequential.
SOVIET RULE AND THE DELINEATION OF BORDERS 113
A Tajik sub-committee was formed within the Territorial Committee, but its
members were quite passive, tending to accept policies developed by the Uzbek
side. However, once the delineation of 1924 was announced, conflicts between the
Uzbeks and Tajiks began to intensify. By 1926 the Tajik elite and the champions
of Tajik autonomy were constantly raising questions about Uzbekistan’s policy
toward their autonomous region, with issues concerning Tajik ethnicity and the
Tajik language growing especially strong. To assure healthy regional development
and true cultural independence, the Tajik autonomists demanded that their region
be elevated to the status of a “union republic” and then incorporated directly into
the USSR, leaving out Uzbekistan. Following on this demand, they also called
for the annexation of new territories to the future republic in order to strength its
economic base. An alternate approach that was considered would have created a
“Central Asian federation,” in which all republics would enjoy equal status and
would then be incorporated into the USSR as a whole.
Moved by both domestic and international circumstances, the Soviet higher
authorities acceded to the Tajiks’ demand and made Tajikistan a union republic in
its own right. On the domestic side, Soviet officials quite explicitly feared Uzbek
hegemony in the region, and had plans to limit further the Uzbeks’ power. On the
international side, Soviet authorities were eager to use the creation of a “Tajik
national state” within their borders as a point of leverage over the civil war that
had flared up in neighboring Afghanistan, and which centrally involved the Tajik
or Persian-speaking population of that country.
Why had the original plan made Tajiks a part of Uzbekistan and given them the
status of an autonomous region rather than of a union republic? Lobbying by such
Tajik leaders as Abdukadyr Mukhitdinov, who had good connections in Moscow,
played a part in that decision. Mukhitdinov, who had chaired the Revolutionary
Committee of the Bukhara Republic and then the Council of People’s Commis-
sars of the Tajik Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, wrote in 1929 about his
earlier belief that all groups speaking Turkic languages constituted a “single free
nation,” and that Tajiks were “in fact Uzbeks” who “had forgotten their language
and national identity and should be made Turks again.”
45
“This is how the national
delineation occurred,” wrote Mukhitdinov. Now, he concluded, “We, who started
this criminal affair, acknowledge our mistake and want to correct it.”
46
In 1929 a commission on the territorial delineation of Tajikistan and Uzbekistan
began its work.
47
The Uzbek leadership quickly agreed on the transfer of the en-
tire Khujand region to the newly created Tajik republic. Thereafter the discussion
focused solely on the issues of Samarkand, Bukhara, and Surkhandarya province.
Uzbek members of the commission based their arguments on economic consider-
ations, and especially on the economic links between the western Ferghana areas
and the Uzbek city of Kokand. The Tajiks easily refuted this argument by refer-
ring to the priority of “national principles,” the need for Khujand to emerge as an
integral administrative unit, and the transfers to Tajikistan, noted above, to which
the Uzbeks had already agreed.
114 ABASHIN, K. ABDULLAEV, R. ABDULLAEV, KOICHIEV
In the fall of 1929 an independent Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic was estab-
lished. The country’s leadership attempted, and nearly succeeded, to gain new
territories from Uzbekistan from Surkhandarya province. But at the beginning of
1930 Moscow arbitrarily decided to put an end to all these disputes.
The last major changes occurred in 1936, when the Kyrgyz Autonomous Region
was removed from the RSFSR, and received the status of a “union republic,” be-
coming the Kyrgyz Soviet Socialist Republic.
48
This change took place as a result
of an arbitrary decision taken in Moscow, in the absence of any claims, counter-
claims, or discussions.
Reviewing the territorial issues, during the 1920s the Ferghana Valley remained
outside the core debates over the delineation of Central Asian borders. Neither
Moscow nor leaders of the national republics considered it a zone of problems or
conflicts. Indeed, differences among the various elites over border issues appeared
insignificant within the context of the hard struggles within the Bolshevik party in
which they were engaged.
In general, the population responded calmly to the delineation of borders. Being
transferred to another administrative unit did not produce immediate changes in
people’s everyday lives, nor did it seriously affect their interests. Because borders
were open and local institutions weak, the revised boundary lines had little or no
immediate effect on familiar economic practices, personal relations, or transport
routes. Under any circumstances, Moscow still had the last word and easily could
reconcile disputers through persuasion or force, and punish anyone deemed re-
sponsible for continued problems. As a result of the new delineation of borders, the
Ferghana Valley was parceled out among three national-administrative entities. As
a consequence, it disappeared from the political map as an independent economic
and cultural whole, turning instead into a peripheral zone connecting the three
union republics among which it had been divided.
SOVIET RULE AND THE DELINEATION OF BORDERS 115
Table 4.1
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