The Major Powers in the Ferghana Valley
The Ferghana Valley is an integral part of the Central Asia strategies of all the great
powers. At present, two immediate regional neighbors, the Russian Federation and
the People’s Republic of China, and one non-regional actor, the United States,
are directly involved in the region. All three are driven by what they see as their
security concerns and interests. Russia and the United States have both a political
and military presence in Central Asia, while China’s emphasis is on economic
ties—sales and resources. Each utilizes regional collective-security institutions to
pursue its goals, whether the CIS, Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO),
and Eurasian Economic Community (EurAsEC) in the case of Russia; the Shanghai
Cooperation Organization (SCO) in the case of China and Russia; and NATO’s
Partnership for Peace programs and Trade Infrastructure Framework Agreements
(TIFAs) in the case of the United States.
Russia’s presence in Central Asia can be explained first and foremost by geo-
politics. Existing transport networks, ethnic links, ties with the energy sector, and
other economic and military relationships benefit the region as well as its large
northern neighbor.
38
All Central Asian states participate in the Russia-dominated
CIS, CSTO,
39
and EurAsEC.
40
CSTO sponsors drug-control initiatives and also
joint military exercise under the “Commonwealth Southern Shield” program. All
three Ferghana states participate on CSTO’s Coordination Council.
At the heyday of the civil war in Tajikistan and conflict in Afghanistan, Rus-
sia stationed border troops on the Kyrgyz-Chinese and Tajik-Kyrgyz borders and
patrolled the trans-Pamir highway. These initiatives coincided with an increase of
drug trafficking through the Ferghana Valley. The IMU’s 1999 incursion into the
Ferghana Valley via Batken in Kyrgyzstan was directly connected with its efforts
THE FERGHANA VALLEY AND THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY 381
to gain control of drug routes along the Osh-Khorog road and the Sary-Tash nodal
point, where China, Tajikistan, and Kyrgyzstan come together.
41
As a component of the CSTO’s Rapid Response Force at Kant, Russia since
2003 has maintained a military base at Kant, 30 kilometers from Bishkek. In March
2008 the Kyrgyz parliament approved an “Agreement between the Kyrgyz Republic
and Russian Federation on the Use of Russian Military Objects on the Territory of
the Kyrgyz Republic and Status of Military Personnel of the Armed Forces of the
Russian Federation in the Kyrgyz Republic.” This agreement gave Russia the use
of three military resources in Kyrgyzstan—in Chaldovar, Karakol, and Mailuu-
Suu—over a period of fifteen years.
42
In addition, Russia proposed to establish
yet another base, near Osh.
43
While some defend this as a stabilizing force in the
region, others see it as a means by which Russia can dominate the entire Ferghana
Valley and position itself for future activities in Afghanistan.
44
Uzbekistan has strongly objected to the establishment of any Russian mili-
tary base in the Ferghana Valley. Its position, as disseminated by the Foreign
Ministry’s Zhakhon press agency, is that: “Uzbekistan sees no need or sense for
establishing a further contingent of Russian troops in the south of Kyrgyzstan.
The realization of any such project on so complex and problem-fraught a ter-
ritory, where the borders of three Central Asian states come together, can only
further the processes of militarization and arouse various forms of nationalistic
protests; equally, it can lead to the introduction of the forces of radical extrem-
ists, which could seriously destabilize the broader region.”
45
Whatever claims are advanced to the contrary, it is hard to conceive how
the militarization of the Ferghana Valley by outside states can serve the real
interests of any Central Asian country. A foreign military presence in this area,
regardless of intentions, will escalate inter-state tensions, disrupt military
and political balances, and lead to the deterioration of security and economic
conditions in the region, further complicating the settlement of cross-border
issues. The only reasonable solution is to exclude all foreign military from the
Ferghana region.
Migratory labor is an important link between Russia and the Ferghana Valley.
The Tajik expert K. Umarov reports that from the Tajik sector alone (Sughd prov-
ince) more than 400 thousand workers have gone to Russia. In some parts of the
province more than 70 percent of working-age males work in the Russian Federa-
tion, Kazakhstan and other countries, producing annual remittances of US$720
million, which equals the province’s entire annual budget.
46
The social cost is high,
however, both when thousands of families have no male household head for years
at a time and when, during the financial crisis, jobs and incomes are lost.
Russia also has moved actively into the hydroelectric power field in the Fer-
ghana Valley. In 2009 Prime Minister Putin proposed US$1.7 billion to fund the
construction of the Kambarata Hydroelectric Power Stations I and II on the upper
reaches of the Syr Darya River. Although Kyrgyz investors are nominally part of
this project, it is likely that the power plant will end up entirely in Russian hands,
382 BOBOKULOV
thus further changing the political dynamics of electric power in all three sectors
of the Ferghana Valley.
China’s comparative advantage among major external powers is that it is the
only one with a direct outlet to the Ferghana states of Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan,
via a 1,400-kilometer common border with the two.
47
Kyrgyzstan’s Osh province
at the eastern end of the Ferghana Valley has direct access to the China’s Xinjiang-
Uyghur Autonomous Region via the high but easily crossed Tian Shan range. The
reality of Uyghur and Xinjiang Kazakh ties of ethnicity, religion, and culture with
the former Soviet states of Central Asia defines China’s concerns in the region
and in the Ferghana Valley particularly. It could not help but perceive the rise of
sovereign states among the Turkic peoples to its west as a harbinger of separatist
currents in Xinjiang, and the appearance of extremist religious groups in the Fer-
ghana Valley as a threat to its own security. The presence of some 600,000 Uyghurs
in the Central Asian states only deepened China’s anxiety.
Because of this, China came to see its own security and that of Central Asia
as interdependent. Its key objective came to be to neutralize religious radicalism,
terrorism, and separatism within the Ferghana Valley and nearby regions of Cen-
tral Asia. In defense of this view, it is worth noting that analysts have brought to
light the plans of Uyghur separatists who took refuge in Afghanistan to work their
way back to Xinjiang via the Ferghana Valley in order to carry out terrorist acts
in China itself.
48
China’s main policy instrument in Central Asia is the SCO. Initially it arose as
a mechanism for resolving border disputes with the new Central Asian states and
Russia. Because much of the relevant documentation and information remained
in Russia, China engaged the Russians in the effort. In due course both countries
signed agreements that legally fixed the borders with the new Central Asian states.
Following the IMU’s 1999 incursion into the Ferghana Valley at Batken, Russia
responded slowly, but China moved quickly to send arms to the Kyrgyz Army and
aid to frontier guards at Batken.
49
These events in the Ferghana Valley directly
gave rise to a new framework agreement, signed in Shanghai on June 15, 2001,
that established the SCO for the purpose of “combating terrorism, extremism, and
separatism.” Soon the SCO moved beyond these concerns to engage the Central
Asians on long-distance transport issues. Chinese investments followed, an early one
being to develop small oil fields in the Uzbek part of the Ferghana Valley.
50
Unlike the CSTO, the SCO’s charter and other documents do not include any
reference to the duty of collective self-defense, which is a mechanism of repel-
ling an armed attack in accordance with article 51 of the UN Charter. At the same
time, SCO member-states accept the possibility of joint use of their armed forces
to counter terrorism, extremism, and separatism.
51
Joint SCO military exercises
in 2007 developed common techniques for crisis management and maintaining
security. Some Russian politicians pointedly spoke of Central Asia as a potential
flash point where armed forces might be required
.
52
The interests of the United States in Central Asia focus on security issues,
THE FERGHANA VALLEY AND THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY 383
western access to hydrocarbon resources, and concern with strengthening the sov-
ereignty and independence of the new regional states. During the first decade of the
twenty-first century, the United States’ main concern was to pursue successfully
its campaign in Afghanistan, to neutralize terrorist and extremist forces there, and
turn that country into a responsible regional player in Central Asia.
The U.S. presence in the Ferghana Valley dates to the early 1940s, when the
Soviet government invited Americans to extract uranium from the Mailuu-Suu
River Valley.
53
After independence, U.S.-Uzbekistan relations witnessed ups and
also downs caused by the IMU’s 1999–2001 incursions into Batken, the events of
September 11, 2001, and the 2005 “Andijan events.” Each of these events provided
the impulse either to intensify relations with the region or to lower their tempo.
Following Andijan the tempo definitely fell, but it bears mentioning that after the
“Batken events” the Pentagon reassigned the Central Asian region to the Central
Command and launched the Central Asian Initiative for Secure Borders (2000).
Also, the United States Senate set up a special subcommittee on Central Asian af-
fairs (2001), and the U.S. State Department created a new Deputy Directorate for
Central and South Asian Affairs.
The United States always has been skeptical of what it considers Uzbekistan’s
slow progress (or, in Uzbekistan’s view, deliberate pace) toward a market economy
and a more participatory system of government. However, a Strategic Partner-
ship Declaration
54
signed in 2002 laid the basis for more stable relations, as did
the TIFAs, noted above, and the Northern Distribution Network for transporting
goods to Afghanistan. By contrast, U.S. relations with the Kyrgyz Republic were
consistently positive until the eve of the so-called Tulip Revolution. A proliferation
of USAID-funded projects in the Kyrgyz sector of the Ferghana Valley touched
many economic and social issues. More recently, the U.S. reliance on the Manas
Air Base has caused it to remain silent on the decline of democratic institutions in
Kyrgyzstan and on the proposed Russian base in the Ferghana Valley at Osh. With
respect to Tajikistan, the United States figured actively in the mediation that led
to the end of the civil war but otherwise has not pursued an active development
program in the Tajik sector of the Ferghana Valley.
The very different strategies of the three Ferghana countries toward economic
and political development led to clear differences in U.S. policies toward them.
Moreover, much of that was disseminated through NGOs, which enjoyed a dif-
ferent status in each of the three Ferghana countries and hence achieved different
levels of effectiveness. This caused complications, particularly with Uzbekistan,
and led one U.S. expert to complain that “the United States had programs affecting
Uzbekistan but not an overall policy, let alone a strategy.”
55
That said, as early as
1997 the United States held four-day joint military exercises with Uzbekistan in the
Ferghana Valley.
56
The United States responded positively to Tashkent’s request to
list the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan as a terrorist organization, and continues
to honor and build upon the terms of the important March 2003 Declaration on
Strategic Partnership.
384 BOBOKULOV
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