2. Materials and methods
2.1. Yeasts and kiwi juice
S. cerevisiae
WLS21 (Sc21) was purchased from the China Center of
Industrial Culture Collection.
Wickerhamomyces anomalus
4# (Wa4#),
which is taxonomically related to
Pichia anomalus
spp., was isolated
from Chinese kiwi fruits and selected for fermentation. Wa4# can
tolerate low pH, high alcohol levels, high osmotic pressure, and low
temperatures. Furthermore, Wa4# can compete with other yeasts in the
same environment (
Sun, Gao, Li, Chen,
&
Guo, 2021
). The two yeast
strains were inoculated in yeast extract
–
peptone
–
dextrose medium at
1% (v/v) and incubated on a shaker at 28
◦
C for 24 h. Guichang kiwifruit
(
Actinidia chinensis
) was purchased from Xiuwen, Guizhou, China. Fresh,
clean kiwifruit was peeled, juiced, and stored at
−
20
◦
C.
2.2. Fermentation
The Sc21 and Wa4# were subcultured twice prior to fermentation.
We added 100 mg/kg pectinase (
≥
500 U/mg) and potassium metha
bisulphate (adjusted to 40 mg/kg) to thawed kiwi juice, which was
incubated in a water bath at 50
◦
C for 10 min and centrifuged at 3500
×
g
for 10 min at 0
◦
C. The sugar content of the supernatant was adjusted
from 12.5
◦
Brix to 23
◦
Brix using high-grade sucrose. We inoculated 300
mL of kiwi juice with 5% yeast as follows: a) mixed Sc21 and Wa4#
(COF); b) sequential inoculation of Wa4# followed by Sc21 after 24 h
(WSF); and c) sequential inoculation of Sc21 followed by Wa4# after 24
h (SWF). The temperature and time of the fermentation experiment were
25
◦
C and 14 days, respectively. Closed fermentation was performed to
maintain a semi-anaerobic state. At the end of the fermentation period,
all kiwi wines were centrifuged at 8000
×
g
for 10 min, and the cell-free
supernatant was stored at
−
20
◦
C for 3 days for downstream analysis. All
fermentations were performed in triplicate.
2.3. Enumeration of yeasts
On days 1
–
14 of fermentation, 10 mL of fermentation broth was
removed aseptically, serially diluted in sterile normal saline (0.9%),
inoculated onto Wallerstein Laboratory nutrient agar, and incubated at
28
◦
C for 48 h. Subsequently, the number of colonies was counted; viable
counts are presented as log colony forming units/mL. Sc21 colonies were
smooth, white-green and convex, whereas Wa4# colonies were white
discs (
Ye et al., 2014a
).
2.4. Physicochemical analysis
The pH and soluble solid content (SSC) of kiwi juice and kiwi wine
were measured using a pH meter (pH 211; Woonsocket, RI, USA) and a
hand-held refractometer (WYT-4; Quanzhou Optical Instrument Co.,
Ltd., Quanzhou, China), respectively (
Wei, Zhang, Qiu, et al., 2020a
).
The titratable acid (as malic acid) content was determined by titrating a
10-fold diluted sample with 0.1 mol/L sodium hydroxide (
Wei et al.,
2019
). Five milliliters of kiwi wine were steam distilled. Then, 0.5 mL of
the distillate was diluted 10-fold, and 1 mL samples were collected for
gas chromatography to determine the alcohol content (
Huang et al.,
2021
). Color measurement was carried out using a CR-10 colorimeter
(Konica Minolta Sensor Co., Tokyo, Japan) with distilled water as the
control (
Gao et al., 2019
). In brief, the color of the sample was measured
with a D65 light source at a 10
◦
observer angle. The three parameters are
L*
(light/darkness),
a*
(red/green), and
b*
(yellowness/blueness)
(
Nowicka
&
Wojdylo, 2016
).
2.5. Analysis of organic acids, monomer phenols, and water-soluble
vitamins
Organic acids were determined using the LC-20A system (Shimadzu,
Kyoto, Japan). The sample entered the Agilent TC-C18 column after
passing through a 0.45-
μ
m tetrafluoroethylene filter membrane (4.6 mm
internal diameter
×
150 mm length; 5
μ
m particle size; Shimadzu) The
mobile phase was 0.01 mol/L (NH4)
3
PO
4
(adjusted to pH 2.7 with
H
3
PO
4
). The wavelength, column temperature, and velocity of the diode
array were 210 nm, 40
◦
C, and 0.7 mL/min, respectively (
Wei, Zhang,
Qiu, et al., 2020b
).
Extraction of polyphenols was based on the method of (
Ye, Yue,
&
Yuan, 2014b
)). In brief, 20 mL of sample was extracted with ethyl ac-
etate three times after the pH was adjusted to 7.0 or 2.0. At 35
◦
C, the
mixture was combined in a vacuum rotary evaporator, evaporated to
dryness, and redissolved in 10 mL of methanol. The Agilent TC-C18
column was connected to the UV absorption detector, and the wave-
length waws set to 280 or 320 nm; the injection volume was 10
μ
L. The
mobile phase was 2% phosphoric acid aqueous solution and methanol
(50: 50, v/v). The flow rate was 0.5 mL/min at 30
◦
C.
The method of determining water-soluble vitamin contents was
slightly modified from a prior report (
Gliszczynska-Swiglo
&
Rybicka,
2015
;
Sasaki, Hatate,
&
Tanaka, 2020
). The LC-2030 system (Shimadzu)
was used to analyze the samples, with an Agilent TC-C18 column as the
UV detector. The mobile phase consisted of 50 mmol/L NH
4
H
2
PO
4
(pH
3.0)
–
acetonitrile (95: 5). The flow rate was 0.5 mL/min. The detection
wavelength for vitamin B
1
, vitamin B
6
, vitamin C, and nicotinamide was
275 nm, and that for vitamin B
5
(pantothenic acid) was 210 nm.
2.6. Analysis of volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
VOCs were determined by a previously described method (
Huang
et al., 2021
) with slight modification. A 5-mL sample was placed in a
20-mL vial, and 1.5 g NaCl and 6
μ
L (0.45 mg/mL) 2-octanol stock so-
lution were added as internal standards for semi-quantitative analysis. A
DB-5MS capillary column (0.25 mm internal diameter
×
30 m length;
0.25
μ
m particle size) was used, and the carrier gas was He at a flow rate
of 1 mL/min. The initial oven temperature was 35
◦
C for 10 min. The
sample was extracted and injected by an MPs2 autosampler (Gerstel,
Mülheim an der Ruhr, Germany). VOCs were identified by comparison
with the NIST 08 and Wiley 05 libraries (
Englezos et al., 2019
).
2.7. Sensory analysis
Sensory evaluation of the COF, WSF, and SWF low-alcohol kiwi
wines was conducted by 10 trained teachers and students (5 males and 5
females). The samples for evaluation were randomly placed into
disposable paper cups, which were rinsed with drinking water after each
sensory evaluation. Testers scored the wines according to their color,
aroma, acidity, taste, and acceptability. A nine-point scale was used to
score happiness (
Peng, Meng, Yue, Wang,
&
Gao, 2021
).
2.8. Statistical analysis
The significance (
p
<
0.05) of differences between means was eval-
uated by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Fisher
’
s multiple-
range test. Origin 2018 software was used for principal component
analysis and radar mapping (OriginLab, Northampton, MA, USA). The
treatments were carried out in triplicate.
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