Dr. Carlos F. Márquez Linares Dr. Enrique F. Quero Gervilla Doctoral Programme in Languages, Texts and Contexts Faculty of Translation and Interpreting university of granada

Term Formation

The specific nature of the process of designation within LSP determines term formation patterns. The nature of a certain subject field, as well as the motivation of term formation influences the processes of term formation. For example, terms used in the field of Medicine will be strictly examined in terms of term form accuracy, because descriptive forms, synonym use and occasional words are no longer applicable. Term formation, in theory, should lead to systematic and self-explanatory terms.

Word formation in Language for Special Purposes (LSP) resembles word formation processes used in LGP. LSP is largely based on LGP vocabulary, where new word coining, i.e. forming neologisms, is approached with extreme care. Incessant specialized knowledge expansion triggers the need for term formation. In specialized language the process of term formation is called neonymy, it is the “mechanism of term formation in LSPs” (Pecman, 2014).

Scientific and technical language is characterized by being dynamic, up-to-date, and pragmatically-oriented. The nature of a special field triggers the need for the designation of new concepts, their definitions, and the naming of previously non-existent phenomena. According to Sager (1990, p. 80), term formation processes depend on the circumstances. The researcher differentiates “primary and secondary term formation”. Primary term formation appears along with concept formation. This stage allows arbitrary term use to a certain extent, producing non- restricted term forms. It can be referred to as “a stage of preliminary designation” (Grinev- Grinevich, 2008, p. 91), when a term is used to designate an unprecedented concept or phenomenon. At the beginning terms can co-exist with LGP words, or have descriptive forms, or be accompanied by definitions. Secondary term formation, in contrast, refers to the formation of a term for an already known concept. According to Sager (1990, p. 80), secondary term formation can be seen in two situations: monolingual revision of terminology, i.e. making it structured, codified etc. and “a knowledge transfer to another linguistic community”. The guidelines attributed to term use are mostly employed during secondary term formation, when the designation of an existing concept should be justified in contrast with the “externally uncontrolled and uncontrollable” primary term formation (Sager, 1990, p. 81).

Valeontis and Mantzari (2006) divide all the mechanisms of term formation into three groups: “creating new forms”, which includes derivation, compounding and abbreviated forms; “using existing forms”, i.e. conversion, terminologisation, transdisciplinary borrowing, semantic transfer within a special language and “interlingual borrowing” (pp. 5-8). Cabré (1999) refers to derivation, compounding and truncation, which corresponds to abbreviation such as “the formal methods” and adding a “creation of phrases” method (p. 92). Phrase creation can be included in the compounding method, along with blends and complex terms, as done by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO, 1999, pp. 28-29). According to Cabré (1999), truncation is “the formal modification of existing units” (p. 92),ewVhailleontis a nd Mantzari (2006, p. 5) ascribed it to the creation of new forms, as did the International Organization for Standardization (ISO, 1999, p. 29). Abbreviated forms are more likely to be interpreted as a method for the creation of new forms because short forms function along with full forms. Both forms are often created almost simultaneously, so that full forms cannot be interpreted as a previous stage of term creation.

In Cabré’s classification (1999, p. 93), conversion is attributed to “functional methods”, along with “lexicalization”. Lexicalization produced by “converting one of the inflected forms of a lexeme into a new word with a different grammatical category”, e.g. “harden” –h“ardening” (Cabré, 1999, p. 93) is not represented by many examples, especially in the narrow field of Corporate Governance. That is the reason why it can be omitted from the classification of the most productive term creation methods. “Semantic methods”, according to Cabré (1999, p. 93), comprise semantic modifications, classified “by the provenance of the base form”, and the form “produced in the process” (ibidem). The International Organization for Standardization (1999) distinguishes “semantic transfer within a special language” (p. 31). In this respect Cabré (1999) makes a justifiable reference to “semantic methods” not only within a special language, but also based on LGP units (p. 93). The classification of productive term formation methods should take into consideration two sources of the “base form” (Quirk and Greenbaum, 1973, p. 430): LGP and other terminologies within LSP. Cabré (1999) distinguishes other methods of term creation besides the formal, functional and semantic methods: “borrowing and loan translation or calquing” (p. 94). The International Organization for Standardization (ISO, 1999) pays attention to similar term formation processes: “direct loan” and “loan translation” with the only stipulation

that the two methods are referred to as “translingual borrowing”, rather than additional creation processes (pp. 31 – 32).

Muñoz (2010) distinguishes the generation of terms with resources from the same language,

i.e. derivation, compounding, parasynthesis, abbreviation or compression, extension of meaning and grammatical category change; and the generation of terms with resources from another language, i.e. loan word, Loan Translation or Calque and Semantic Loan Translation or Semantic Calque. Parasynthesis can be regarded as a mixture of compounding and derivation (Muñoz, 2010, p. 11). Grammatical category change is another name for conversion. The extension of meaning is a part of terminologization or transdisciplinary borrowing and is often referred to as semantic transfer. Loan word stands for direct loan.

Researchers do not mention DT within interlingual activity. However, in practice, this creation method is very frequent, though not advisable when regarding the strict nature of LSP.

All the methods of term creation can be grouped into two activities, based on Sager’s model of “primary and secondary term formation” (Sager, 1990: 80): “monolingual” or “the monolingual creation of a new term, the monolingual revision of an existing term” (Fischer, 2010, p. 26) and “interlingual” activities or “interlingual transfer of an existing form” (Fischer, 2010, p. 26). The formal, functional and semantic methods can thus be attributed to the monolingual creation of new forms, whereas Direct Loan, Loan Translation, Semantic Loan Translation can be interpreted as interlingual activities. Term formation as a monolingual activity is further subdivided into primary and secondary term formation, with the only stipulation being that abbreviated term creation can be attributed to a marginal area between the creation of new terms and the use of existing forms. Term formation as an interlingual activity is pure secondary term formation.

The following classification of term creation methods was developed on the basis of the various classifications included in this section:

• 
  term formation as a monolingual activity was subdivided into two categories: creation of new forms comprising derivation, compounding and abbreviated forms; and using existing forms consisting of conversion, terminologization and transdisciplinary borrowing;
  
• 
  term formation as an interlingual activity or translingual borrowing was subdivided into Direct Loan , Loan Translation, Semantic Calque and Descriptive Translation.
  

The following chart demonstrates the basic term creation methods:

Term Formation Methods
Term Formation as a Monolingual Activity	Creation of New Forms	Derivation
		Compounding
		Abbreviated Forms
	Using Existing Forms	Conversion
		Terminologisation
		Transdisciplinary Borrowing
Term Fromation as an Interlingual Activity (Translingual Borrowing)	Direct Loan
	Loan Translation
	Semantic Calque
	Descriptive Translation

1.