Dr. Carlos F. Márquez Linares Dr. Enrique F. Quero Gervilla Doctoral Programme in Languages, Texts and Contexts Faculty of Translation and Interpreting university of granada

forgery: подделка документов (IFC) (poddelka dokumentov; L.t.: falsification of documents, forgery);

derivatives: производные ценные бумаги (IFC) (proizvodnye cennie bumagi; L.t.: derived securities);

declare dividends: объявить о выплате дивидендов (IFC) (ob’javit’ o vyplate dividendov; L.t.: to declare the payment of dividends).

These terms contain additional semantic components: “документов” in подделка документов, “ценные бумаги” in производные ценные бумаги, “о выплате” in объявить о выплате дивидендов. These elements are implicit in the English terms, which are strengthened by the English grammatical system which supports laconic constructions.

2. CALQUE and DT. Figurativeness

The DT and Calque method implies that certain components of a term were borrowed into the source language using Calque. The previous section focuses on the term forms and reveals that some of them may trigger the usage of descriptive elements. Nevertheless, not only may the form of the source term cause the usage of descriptiveness, but also its content. As mentioned above, some term components can contain implicit meanings, which might result in the descriptive term form in the target language.

The specific group of terms with figurative meaning accounts for a number of descriptive translation cases. The figurative meaning of terms is usually based on the etymology of a term; it is often retrieved using metaphorical transfer. Correspondingtly, the term form may be unclear and not motivated in the target language. For instance, the term leverage attained its figurative sense "advantage for accomplishing a purpose"” as far back as 1858. And by 1933 “the financial sense” was attested to the word in American English (Online Etymology Dictionary). It is obvious that English was more prepared for the use of the financial term than Russian, where the word “рычаг” (leverage) is not used for accomplishing a goal. The specific meaning of “the use of credit to enhance one's speculative capacity” (Merriam-Webster) is, without doubt, innovative in Russian. For this reason, the term struggles with the convenient and clear form in Russian, being shaped into different forms from Pure DT to Calque and Direct Loan (see table 18): (Pure DT) использование кредита для совершения финансовых сделок (finance) (Lingvo) (ispolzovanie kredita dlya sovershenija finansovyh sdelok; L.t.: the use of a credit for the completion of financial transactions); (Direct Loan): левередж, леверидж (Ruscorpora); (Сalque): (финансовый) рычаг (Academic) ((Finansovyj) rychag; L.t.: Financial leverage).

aDnTd Calque could be the method for the translation of figurative terms under the following circumstances:

• 
  The figurativeness of a term is preserved and borrowed in its implicit form with the corresponding meaning in Russian. Descriptive components help to either explain the term form, or to shape the form of the term. Calque is based on the figurative component;
  
• 
  The figurativeness of a term is preserved and implicit, but the form of the term is changed,
  

i.e. the figurative term component is based on a similar figurative meaning element in Russian. In this case the form of the term or non-figurative components are borrowed using Calque;

• 
  The figurativeness of the term is made explicit. Calque is based on the form of the term or its non-figurative components.
  

As many as 9 terms with figurative meanings in English were translated using Calque and DT into Russian.

The first case mentioned above is represented by 6 examples. The use of figurative components of a source term with additional descriptive elements proves to be the most common for the Calque and DT method. The terms absorption factor and deadlocks resolution illustrate such a case, where figurative elements were retrieved using Pure Calque: коэффициент поглощения издержек (UNTERM) (koefficient pogloschenija izderzhek; L.t.: a coefficient of cost absorption); разрешение тупиковых ситуаций (Ruscorpora) (razreshenie tupikovyh situatziy; L.t. resolution of deadlock situations). Both terms retain their figurativeness in the target language, while the figurative meaning stays the same: “поглощение” (pogloschenije, absorption); “тупиковый” (tupikovuj, deadlock, an adjective).

The use of descriptive elements is justifiable and makes DT and Calque competitive with the Pure Calque method. The term коэффициент поглощения издержек (UNTERM) (koefficient pogloschenija izderzhek; L.t.: a coefficient of cost absorption) uses the descriptive components retrieved from its definition: “in absorption costing, the rate determined in advance for all cost centers for allocating fixed costs and variable costs (together or separately) to the output, in an accounting period” (Business Dictionary). The use of the semantic component “издержки” (izderzhki; expenses, costs) is justified by the existence of Pure Calque in other fields (Chemistry, Physics etc.): коэффициент поглощения (Lingvo) (koefficient pogloschenija; L.t.: a coefficient of expenses): “его суть заключается в зависимости скоростей роста коэффициента поглощения от световой интенсивности” (Trofimov, 2004. Ruscorpora).

Although the term is also used in the field of Chemistry and Physics in English, its use in the field of Management in Russian is new and needs to be transparent.

The use of descriptive elements for the translation of the term deadlocks resolution is justified by the preference for the native language requirement. The descriptive form разрешение тупиковых ситуаций (Ruscorpora) (razreshenie tupikovyh situatzij; L.t. resolution of deadlock situations) results from the form of the source term: “noun in attributive position + noun”. Such a form requires the reversion of word order in Russian and the use of the genitive case for the noun which appears in the attributive position in Russian: *разрешение тупика (razhreshenie tupika, L.t.: resolution of a deadlock). Nevertheless, Pure Calque is impossible in this case, because of the unwieldy form in Russian and its ambiguous meaning (“разрешение” has another meaning of “permission, permit, authorization” (Lingvo)). The use of the descriptive element “ситуаций” (situatzij; L.t. of situations) makes the term form clear and attests the single meaning to it.

Under Calque and DT, terms can retain their figurative meaning, but the term component bearing metaphorical meaning can be borrowed into Russian with another form. Such cases are quite rare and are represented by only two examples in our research. For example, the term diffused ownership has the following equivalent in Russian: раздробленность акционерного капитала (IFC) (razdroblennost’ aktzionernogo kapitala; L.t.: the fragmentation of joint stock). “Раздробленность” literally means “fragmentation”, in Russian, while “diffused” corresponds to “рассеянный, размытый, диффузионный” (rassejannyj, razmytyj, diffuzionnyj) (Lingvo) and even “распространнённый” (raprostranyonnyj, L.t.: widespread) (Lingvo Economics) in Economics. The figurative term components were borrowed from the meaning of the English term: “Such firms have a separation of ownership and control, in that ownership is dispersed among many small shareholders and control is largely concentrated in the hands of salaried professional managers who own little (or no) equity.” (Peng, 2012, p. 535). The semantic components “separation” and “dispersed” with their clearly motivated meaning led to the use of the element “раздробленность” (fragmentation) in Russian. The use of descriptive elements is justified by the compatibility of the term components: “joint-stock” (акционерный капитал) can

be described as dispersed, while “ownership” is difficult to represent with such a characteristic. Accordingly the descriptiveness of the term was triggered by non-figurative term elements.

The third case of translation of figurative terms using DT and Calque is not supported by many examples. In our research only one case illustrates the method and proves the rarity of its use. The figurativeness of the term is made explicit, but some term components are borrowed using Calque, e.g.: self-dealing: операции в собственных интересах (Academic) (operacii v sobstvennyh interesah; L.t.: operations for one’s own interests). The whole term was translated descriptively; however, the term component “self-“ was transferred with the help of Calque: “cобственный” (sobstvennyj, L.t.: one’s own), matching the definition of the term: “Financial dealing that is not at arm's length; especially: borrowing from or lending to a company by a controlling individual primarily to the individual's own advantage.” (Merriam-Webster). The figurativeness of the whole term in the source language is preserved within the single term. The term components, translated separately with descriptive components, are not figurative. The descriptive element is based on the definition of the term: “собственные интересы” (sobstvennye interesy; L.t.: self-interests).

3. CALQUE AND DT. Competitiveness and Use

The analysis of Calque and DT proves the method to be successful and practical. Calque and DT is used in the following circumstances:

• 
  The form of the source term is difficult to reproduce in the target term without essential grammatical elements. For example, application controls: прикладные средства контроля (IFC) (prikladnye sredstva kontrolja; L.t.: applied control means); сontrol transaction: cделка по приобретению контроля (IFC) (sdelka po priobreteniu kontrolya; L.t.: a transaction on control acquisition);
  
• 
  The form of the source term is difficult to reproduce in the target term, because one of the elements contains additional semantic components, while other term components are borrowed using Calque. For example, mandatory bid: обязательное предложение о покупке (IFC) (оbyazatel’noe predlozhenie o pokupke; L.t.: an obligatory offer for a purchase); competing claimant: конкурирующий заявитель требования (UNCITRAL -1) (konkuriruush’iy zayavitel’ trebovaniya; L.t.: a competing claimant of a requirement);
  
• 
  The transfer of the figurativeness of the source term needs additional semantic or grammatical components to be included in the translation. However, the figurativeness of a term influences descriptiveness to a negligible extent when other components are retrieved by Calque. For example, anti-money laundry: борьба с отмыванием денег (IFC) (bor’ba s otmyvaniem deneg; L.t.: a struggle against money washing (laundry).
  

Calque and DT is represented in as much as 37% of recommended or preferred translations of the terms analyzed. It means that 37% of the terms, which were represented in the glossaries and dictionaries in the descriptive form, initially demonstrated that DT and Calque could be a competitive method with other translation techniques. A total of 75 terms have Calque and DT as a recommended translation into Russian. Most of them are represented in the English-Russian glossaries in the form of Calque and DT: 68 out of 75 terms (2 terms were translated using Pure DT and 5 terms using Additional or Irrelevant Components (see below)).

In some cases Calque and DT underwent certain changes within the term form in the translation process; nevertheless the method has proved to be competitive and quite stable. For example, the term buy-out has the following equivalent in the glossary: выкуп контрольного пакета акций компании (IFC) (vykup kontrol’nogo paketa akciy kompanii; L.t.: buy- out/repurchase of a control package of shares). However, the term appears only once in Ruscorpora: “Менеджеры «Сибура» не скрывают, что помимо выкупа контрольного пакета акций компании у Газпромбанка они заинтересованы в консолидации бумаг, принадлежащих сейчас другим акционерам” (Shabashov, 2008. Ruscorpora).

The shorter equivalent retrieved from Ruscorpora is also based on the Calque and DT method: выкуп контрольного пакета (Ruscorpora) (vykup kontrol’nogo paketa; L.t.: repurchase of a control package). It is used more often and is represented in 16 Ruscorpora files: “Для привлечения средств на выкуп контрольного пакета акционеры «Вестера» ведут переговоры с пятью банками” (Perceva, 2011. Ruscorpora) (L.t.: to attract money for the buyout of a control package the shareholders make negotiations with five banks). The term form surpasses another Calque and DT term in its use; it appears in 6 Ruscorpora documents: выкуп контрольного пакета акций (Ruscorpora) (vykup kontrol’nogo paketa akcij; L.t.: repurchase of a control package of shares): “В апреле РБК daily уже сообщала о том, что южноафриканский Standard Bank ведет переговоры о выкупе контрольного пакета акций группы у топ-менеджеров группы во главе с Рубеном Варданяном” («Trojka Dialog» hochet pod krylo gosudarstva, 2010. Ruscorpora) (L.t.: … Standard Bank Lodz the negotiations about the buyout of a control package of shares of a group…). Accordingly, the term выкуп контрольного пакета (Ruscorpora) (vykup kontrol’nogo paketa; L.t.: repurchase of a control package) is more universal in its use, due to the absence of components which might limit its meanin and restrict its use. Despite the fact that the preferred translation for the term buy-out is different from the one recommended in the dictionary, it has been slightly varied and corresponds to the initial form, which proves the stable nature of the Calque and DT method.

The transformation of the term buy-out in Russian has happened using the Calque and DT method. The term form has been slightly modified in order to expand its practical applicability and to make its meaning less concrete. The term listed (shares) (definition: “being included and

traded on a given exchange” (Investopedia) is represented in the glossary in two forms, obtained using Pure DT:руюкщотиеися на фондовой бирже (акции) (IFC) (kotiruyush’iesya na fondovoy birzhe (akcii); L.t.: quoted on a stock exchange (shares)) and DT and Calque : включённый в листинг (IFC) (vkluchjonnyj v listing; L.t.: included in the listing). The second term form is based on the term retrieved with the help of Direct Loan and assimilation: “листинг” (listing). The term включённый в листинг (IFC) (vkluchjonnyj v listing; L.t.: included in the listing) is an innovative derivative of another term within the field (listing) and appears in 4 Ruscopora documents:

“Сейчас акции компании уже включены в листинг РТС, также готовятся документы для включения ценных буаг в листинг на ММВБ и Лондонской

фондовой бирже (LSE)” (Anglijskij pacien, 2007. Ruscorpora).
The term retrieved using Pure DT is also represented in 4 Ruscorpora documents, although it has synonymic forms, and is an obstacle to the harmonization of terminological systems. The use of the following term forms can be compared:

•