part of the national struggle over the political future of Libya. To this
was added a strong anti-Israeli incitement, which acquired anti-Semitic
overtones, diffused by numerous Tunisian and Algerian volunteers who
passed through Libya on their way to join the Arab front in the war
on Palestine. The hostile anti-Jewish atmosphere in Tripoli was further
strengthened by radio broadcasts that reported on developments in Pal-
estine and were heard in the streets. This was on top of an economic
crisis and drought, which filled Tripoli with poor, unemployed villagers.
The outcome of these riots, however, was not as severe as those of 1945
because the Jews put into practice their secret training in self-defense
and used the weapons they had procured illegally and had been trained
in using. Moreover, the British army got into action much faster than in
1945 and restored law and order. As a result, 13 Jews were killed, several
dozens were injured, and 1,600 Jews from the mixed neighborhoods re-
mained homeless with many seeking refuge in the old city. In addition,
much Jewish property was lost. This time, too, the old Jewish neighbor-
hoods were better protected than the new mixed ones.
In Benghazi, Arab masses rioted for six hours on June 16, 1948, but
were stopped by the police: one Jew was killed, several were injured, a
synagogue was burned and property looted.
23
The main reason for the
different condition of the Jews in both parts of Libya was the control
Idris al-Sanusi had over developments in Cyrenaica, which was much
stronger than that of the traditional Muslim leadership of Tripolitania,
resulting in better security.
During the last three years of the BMA, Jews did not suffer from wide-
scale attacks. Still, prior to the mass emigration there were frequent at-
tacks on itinerant Jewish peddlers on deserted roads,
24
as were kidnap
attempts, some of which were successful, of young Jewish women by
Muslim men.
25
Similar incidents had happened in the past, but they be-
came much more frequent on the eve of Jewish emigration to Israel. The
audacity of the Muslims increased, the readiness of the British authorities
to intervene in small disturbances decreased, and as a result the feeling
of insecurity among the Jews grew. The atrocities of November 1945 and
Jewish-Muslim Relations in Libya · 181
the additional reminder of June 1948, coupled with the overall feeling of
insecurity due to the frequent attacks on Jewish peddlers and young Jew-
ish women, brought numerous Jews to the conclusion that they were not
safe under the BMA, not to mention an independent Libyan state under
Arab Muslim rule. The 1945 riots were a turning point in Jewish-Muslim
relations in Libya following which the Jews no longer regarded Libya as
their homeland, and many tried to leave clandestinely: some 2,500 Jews
left illegally before 1949.
26
Following the British recognition of the state of Israel in February
1949, Britain allowed free Jewish emigration from Libya to Israel.
27
Once
the news reached Libya, indigenous Jews started to organize mass Jew-
ish emigration. Within a very short period of time, Jewish emigration
from Libya was openly directed in Tripoli by officials of the Israeli Min-
istry of Aliyah (immigration), emissaries of the Jewish Agency and the
American Joint Distribution Board, working with numerous local Jew-
ish volunteers. Due to the atmosphere of insecurity in the hinterland,
the emigration officials decided to evacuate all the Jewish inhabitants
of the Tripolitanian and Cyrenaican hinterland. Consequently, within a
few months, thousands of Jewish evacuees moved willingly to Tripoli, in
preparation for emigration to Israel. Only a few hundred Jews remained
in Benghazi—all the rest of the centuries-old Jewish community of the
hinterland of Libya had willingly contributed to its peaceful liquidation.
Rural Muslims occasionally voiced their reservations and sorrow regard-
ing the departure of the Jews and at times had even put pressure and
economic boycott on the remaining Jews.
28
In some cases, the Muslims
stopped to trade with Jews and employ them. Furthermore, many Jews
had found it difficult to find buyers for their real estate properties even
when they were ready to sell them much below their market value. On
the other hand, some Muslims reminisced on the “good old days” while
others warned the Jews of the difficulties awaiting them in Israel. In some
villages, the Muslim population organized a farewell ceremony, in which
they tried to persuade the Jews to remain. During the legal, free, and di-
rect emigration operation (1949–51), over 31,000 Jews emigrated to Israel
in a well-organized fashion in Israeli ships and through Europe. Only
6,000 Jews remained in Libya, mainly in Tripoli with a few hundred in
Benghazi: some remained due to the enormous property they owned that
they could not take with them, while others stayed due to old age and
sickness.
29
182 · Rachel Simon
For fifteen years, from early 1952 until June 1967, Jews enjoyed relative
security in Libya. The last anti-Jewish attack took place on 5 June 1967,
when the Six Day War broke out between Israel and its Arab neighbors.
30
This attack did not come as a surprise. Before the war, the Muslim popu-
lation was incited by mosque preachers to join the anti-Israeli jihad. The
anti-Zionist propaganda in the media was strong, and a week of identi-
fication with Palestine was planned to start on 5 June. The Jewish com-
munity announced its neutral stand regarding the Arab-Israeli conflict,
but this declaration did not prevent the anti-Jewish outburst on the first
day of the war. By then, most Libyan Jews were scattered in the new,
religiously mixed neighborhoods of Tripoli, deprived of any self-defense
or even communal organization and lacking any political affiliation. Fol-
lowing a few hours of Muslim rioting in the streets of Tripoli, military
forces intervened. Aiming to protect the Jews, the army evacuated them
to a military camp in the outskirts of Tripoli. Within a few days the com-
munity and the authorities reached an agreement to temporarily evacu-
ate the Jews from Libya, and tempers calmed down. A hasty departure to
Italy under military guard took place with the refugees being allowed to
take with them only light personal equipment and £20 per person. Most
of the community escaped in this manner and only about one hundred
Jews remained. Later on, Jews were allowed to take out larger amounts
of capital, and some returned to Libya briefly, mainly to liquidate their
businesses. The number of Jews gradually decreased, and only a few in-
dividuals remained in the 1980s.
During the period under review, when protection by the authorities
was not sufficient, there were several attempts by Jews, mainly in the
Tripoli area, to organize self-defense. During the Ottoman period this de-
fense was mainly in the hands of a group of Jewish strongmen (biryonim)
who cast fear over those threatening vulnerable Jews, mainly traders,
peddlers, and women.
31
This group, headed by a chief and his deputy,
used to compete in wrestling matches every Saturday afternoon on the
Tripoli city wall adjacent to the Jewish quarters. In 1850, the Ottoman au-
thorities forbade these matches due to an accident that took place during
their course and even demanded the dismantling of the group. By then,
the Ottoman authorities increased their involvement in introducing law
and order and the regime opposed the existence of independent security
forces that were not under its direct command.
A different kind of defense was organized at the end of the Ottoman
Jewish-Muslim Relations in Libya · 183
period. It was based on some 160 Jews, the first to be mobilized to the
Ottoman army in the Tripoli region. They were legally armed and un-
derwent basic military training in 1911, shortly before the Italian inva-
sion. They protected the Jewish quarters of the old city of Tripoli against
attempts by Muslims to penetrate the enclosed Jewish neighborhood
and harm the inhabitants during the short interregnum in early Octo-
ber 1911. Afterwards, the Jewish soldiers disarmed themselves and gave
their weapons to the Italian authorities. The latter, however, returned the
weapons to the Jews when the Italians felt the need to arm population
elements loyal to the regime in order to defend themselves from penetra-
tion attempts by hostile Muslim groups from the region under Ottoman
and rebel control.
32
The last Jewish self-defense organization in Libya was a clandestine
force that was organized following the November 1945 riots.
33
This group
of Tripolitan Jews bought weapons, mainly from the “underworld” and
were trained by Palestinian Jews serving in the British army and by a
special emissary from Palestine, but gradually the organization came un-
der local command. Members were divided into small compartmental-
ized cells and collected money from the community. In addition to their
activities in passive defense and their organization against the riots of
June 1948, they started to place bombs in Tripoli in order to deter Arab
attackers and force the British police and military to increase their protec-
tion of the Jewish inhabitants. The British authorities, aided by informa-
tion provided by the leadership of the community, managed to detect
seven members of this group in November 1948. Explosives, weapons,
and invoices for donations for the operations were found in the homes of
the detainees, who were sentenced to various periods of imprisonment.
34
Following the November 1948 arrests and the announcement of free emi-
gration to Israel in early 1949, these violent acts ceased. The protection of
the Jewish community had improved as a result of the concentration of
the majority of the Jewish population in Tripoli and the presence of Israeli
and international representatives on the scene as well as the desire of the
British authorities to guarantee a swift and orderly emigration to Israel.
Thus, during this period, there were attacks against the Jews, but these
were mainly small-scale local and privately motivated events, on eco-
nomic, religious, or romantic grounds and the central authorities had
usually tried to protect the Jews. When the Jews felt that the authorities
were unable or unwilling to protect them, they organized self-defense or
184 · Rachel Simon
reached agreements with local sources of power. Organized and wide-
spread attacks on political grounds started only in the mid-1940s, follow-
ing Arab nationalist agitation in Libya on the eve of its independence and
as part of the Arab-Israeli conflict.
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