Conclusion
Jews and Muslims lived in close proximity in Libya. They were economi-
cally interdependent and had social and cultural ties on the popular
level, but there were also differences between the status, conditions, and
aspirations of the two communities. One difference was in their legal
status: from being a “protected people” among the Muslims in the Otto-
man state, the status of the Jews deteriorated under independence, when
they could hardly become Libyan citizens. Jews were rarely part of the
security forces, which were basically a Muslim domain. This had at times
severe repercussions on Jewish life, which the Jews tried to remedy by
establishing various organizations of self-defense and contacts with pow-
erful chiefs. Jews were also hardly part of the administration, and to the
degree that they were, it was still proportionally less than their share
in the population. As for the social-cultural sphere, Jews and Muslims
had shared customs, beliefs, and practices on the popular level, but Jews
used a special Jewish dialect of Arabic, different from that of the Muslim
majority, and their interests regarding higher culture were different from
those of the Muslims. Once Jews started to become interested in cultural
issues outside their own community, these were directed to Europe, not
to the Arab and Muslim worlds. Until the late Ottoman period, national-
ity was not a dividing issue, but in the early twentieth century, Zionism
started to take root among the Jews. Local Libyan and Arab nationalism
was slower to develop, and only since the mid-1940s the national issue
started to be a dividing factor, with hardly any Jews becoming members
of Arab national groups. Thus, although on the popular and economic
levels there were close contacts between Jews and Muslims, they were
apart on the legal, administrative, cultural, and national levels.
Notes
1. Rachel Simon, “The Jews of Libya and Their Gentile Environment in the
Late Ottoman Period” (Hebrew), Pe῾amim 3 (1979): 20–21.
2. Ibid., 12–20; Mordecai Hacohen, Higgid Mordecai (Jerusalem: Ben Zvi Insti-
tute, 1978), 45, 145, 284, 288, 292.
196 · Rachel Simon
3. Simon, “The Jews of Libya,” 31–32.
4. Renzo De Felice, Jews in an Arab Land: Libya, 1835–1970 (Austin: University
of Texas Press, 1985), 168ff.
5. Ibid., 185ff.
6. A. L. Arbib, The Legal Status of the Jews in Libya (Bat-Yam: Association of
Libyan Jews in Israel, 1984), 5, 19–20 (Hebrew).
7. Simon, “The Jews of Libya,” 8–9.
8. Hacohen, Higgid Mordecai, 168–69; Frigia Zuaretz et al., eds., Yahadut Luv
(Tel-Aviv: Committee of Libyan Communities in Israel, 1982), 71; Simon, “The
Jews of Libya,” 8, 10.
9. Rachel Simon, “It Could Have Happened There: The Jews of Libya during
the Second World War,” Africana Journal 16 (1994): 394–96.
10. De Felice, Jews in an Arab Land, 191–92.
11. Arbib, Legal Status, 5; Report, 25 February 1949, British Public Records
Office (PRO), Foreign Office (FO), 371/73793.
12. Yalquṭ ha-Mizraḥ ha-Tikhon, September/October 1949, 20.
13. Arbib, Legal Status, 6.
14. I. Eisenberg, “The Worsening Condition of Libyan Jews,” Bi-tefuṣot ha-
golah (September 1961): 52; De-Felice: 267–68.
15. Simon, “The Jews of Libya,” 29; The Jew (Hebrew periodical published in
London), 22 November 1906, 18 July 1907.
16. The Jew, 19 June 1906.
17. Simon, “The Jews of Libya,” 29–31.
18. Ibid., 19, 25–26; A. Almaleh, “Among the Cave Dwellers of Tripolitania”
(Hebrew), Hed ha-Mizraḥ (26 March 1943): 8.
19. Almaleh, “Cave Dwellers,” 1943: 8; A. Almaleh, “The Pogrom Towns in
Tripolitania” (Hebrew), Hed ha-Mizraḥ (23 November 1945): 6–7 (21 December
1945): 8, (28 December 1945): 9.
20. Simon, “It Could Have Happened There,” 392–93, 396–98.
21. De Felice, Jews in an Arab Land, 192 ff.; Zuaretz et al., Yahadut Luv, 207–27;
PRO, FO 371/45394, 371/45395, 371/45396, 371/53509, 371/69374; Central Zi-
onist Archives (CZA) S5/797, S5/1396, S25/5217, S25/6457, Z4/15169.
22. Sh. Auerbach, 4 July 1948, CZA, S32/1069; Report from 21 June 1948,
PRO, FO 371/69422, 160/98; De Felice, Jews in an Arab Land, 223–25.
23. Dr. I. Schwarzbart, Report, 10 May 1949, CZA, S20/556.
24. Ha-Ṣofeh, 21 and 22 November 1949; Eisenberg, 53.
25. Report from 21 June 1948, PRO, FO 371/69422, 160/98; ha-Ṣofeh, 18, 21,
and 22 November 1949.
26. Zuaretz et al., Yahadut Luv, 262–96; Rachel Simon, “From ‘Zion Circle’ to
Realized Zionism: Jewish Emigration from Libya during the Twentieth Cen-
tury,” Shorashim ba-Mizraḥ 3 (1991): 306.
27. Simon, “From ‘Zion Circle,’“ 307; British Foreign Office to the governor
of Benghazi, 31 January 1949, PRO, FO 371/73906.
28. Simon, “From ‘Zion Circle,’“ 332; ha-Ṣofeh, 18 November 1949.
Jewish-Muslim Relations in Libya · 197
29. Simon, “From ‘Zion Circle,’“ 330; Zuaretz et al., Yahadut Luv, 297–322.
30. De Felice, Jews in an Arab Land, 274ff.; D. Meghnagi, “Un ragazzo nel
Pogrom, Giugno 1967,” La Rassegna Mensile di Israel, 49, no. 1 (September 1983):
324–31; Rachel Simon, “Jews in Arab Countries,” Middle East Record, 1967 (Jeru-
salem, 1971): 308.
31. Hacohen, Higgid Mordecai, 118–23.
32. Simon, “The Jews of Libya,” 18, 33–34.
33. Rachel Simon, “Jewish Defense in Libya,” Jewish Political Studies Review
13 (2001): 119–24.
34. Ibid., 124–29; Zuaretz et al., Yahadut Luv, 231–37, 245–54; al-Ahrām, 17 and
25 November 1949.
35. Simon, “The Jews of Libya,” 10.
36. Rachel Simon, “Beginnings of Leadership: Mustafa Kemal’s First Visit to
Libya, 1908,” Belleten 46 (1980): 69–82.
37. Zuaretz et al., Yahadut Luv, 141; Rachel Simon, “The Relations of the
Jewish Community of Libya with Europe in the Late Ottoman Period,” in J.
L. Miège, ed., Les relations intercommunautaires juives en méditerranée occidentale
XIIIe–XXe siècles (Paris: Editions du CNRS, 1984), 75–76.
38. British consul in Benghazi to the Minister of Foreign Affairs, 20 August
1908, PRO, FO 195/2271.
39. Simon, “The Jews of Libya,” 23.
40. Ibid., 32–33.
41. De Felice, Jews in an Arab Land, 95ff.; A. Almaleh, “Zionism in Libya and
Its Creators,” Hed ha-Mizraḥ (Hebrew) (26 May 1944), 7.
42. Report of the community on the November riots, PRO, FO 371/53509.
43. De Felice, Jews in an Arab Land, 217–23.
44. Rachel Simon, “The Revival of the Hebrew Language in Libya,” Sho-
rashim ba-Mizraḥ 2 (1989): 173–209.
45. The soldier Elkanah M., 6 Tevet 706, CZA, J17/8064; A. Zaif, “To the His-
tory of a Hebrew School ‘Somewhere’“ (Hebrew), Hed ha-Ḥinukh, 5/18 (246)
(Tevet 704), 43; Simon, “Revival,” 190.
46. Amnon to Eliyahu, Memorandum on Benghazi, 23 June 1943, CZA,
S25/5217.
47. Ha-Ṣofeh, 8 December 1946; S. U. Nakhon, “The Jews of Libya” (Hebrew),
Yalquṭ ha-Mizraḥ ha-Tikhon (January 1949): 22; J. Kimche, “Tripolitanian Jewry’s
Inexorable Decline,” Jewish Chronicle, 19 March 1948, 11.
48. Sh. Auerbach, Tripoli, 30 July 1948, CZA, S32/1069.
49. Report on the visit of the Committee of Inquiry, PRO, FO 371/69379.
50. Report, 3 October 1947, PRO FO 371/63212.
51. Calvet, Benghazi, to the Foreign Ministry, 31 December 1948, PRO, FO
371/73906.
52. The British Representation to the African Department in the Foreign
Ministry, Tel-Aviv, 19 December 1951, PRO, FO 371/97329; Simon, “From ‘Zion
Circle,’“ 309, 314.
198 · Rachel Simon
53. Haim Solel to the Aliyah Department in the Jewish Agency, Rome, 14
February 1952, CZA S86/180.
54. Rachel Simon, “Jewish Itinerant Peddlers in Ottoman Libya: Economic,
Social, and Cultural Aspects,” in C. E. Farah, ed., Decision Making and Change
in the Ottoman Empire (Kirksville: Thomas Jefferson University Press, 1993),
293–304.
55. Hacohen, Higgid Mordecai, 168; The Jew, 17 October 1907, 8.
56. Hacohen, Higgid Mordecai, 99–100, 108–109.
57. Ha-Ṣofeh, 18 November 1949; Simon, “From ‘Zion Circle,’“ 332.
58. Arbib, Legal Status, 6–8; De Felice, Jews in an Arab Land, 258ff.
59. Simon, “The Jews of Libya,” 8, 18, 20–21.
60. Ibid., 25.
61. Ibid., 22–23.
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