185
T I M E D I S C O U N T I N G
the delay-speedup asymmetry (Loewenstein 1988). Shifting consumption in any
direction is made less desirable by loss-aversion, since one loses consumption in
one period and gains it in another. When delaying consumption, loss-aversion re-
inforces time discounting, creating a powerful aversion to delay. When expediting
consumption, loss-aversion opposes time discounting, reducing the desirability of
speedup (and occasionally even causing an aversion to it).
Using a reference-dependent model that assumes loss aversion in consumption,
Bowman, Minehart, and Rabin (1999) predict that “news” about one’s (stochas-
tic) future income affects one’s consumption growth differently than the standard
Permanent Income Hypothesis predicts. According to (the log-linear version of )
the Permanent Income Hypothesis, changes in future income should not affect the
rate of consumption growth. For example, if a person finds out that his or her
permanent income will be lower than formerly thought, he or she would reduce
consumption by, say, 10 percent in every period, leaving consumption growth un-
changed. If, however, this person were loss-averse in current consumption, he or
she would be unwilling to reduce this year’s consumption by 10 percent—forcing
that person to reduce future consumption by
more
than 10 percent, and thereby
reducing the growth rate of consumption. Two studies by Shea (1995a, 1995b)
support this prediction. Using both aggregate U.S. data and data from teachers’
unions (in which wages are set one year in advance), Shea finds that consumption
growth responds more strongly to future wage decreases than to future wage
increases.
MODELS INCORPORATING UTILITY FROM ANTICIPATION
Some alternative models build on the notion of “anticipal” utility discussed by the
elder and younger Jevons. If people derive pleasure not only from current con-
sumption but also from anticipating future consumption, then current instanta-
neous utility will depend positively on future consumption—that is, the period-
t
instantaneous utility function would take the form
u
(
c
t
;
c
t
1
1
,
c
t
1
2
, . . .) where
u
/
c
t
9
.
0 for
t
9 .
t
. Loewenstein (1987) advanced a formal model that as-
sumes that a person’s instantaneous utility is equal to the utility from consump-
tion in that period plus some function of the discounted utility of consumption in
future periods. Specifically, if we let
v
(
c
) denote utility from actual consumption,
and assume this is the same for all periods, then:
Loewenstein describes how utility from anticipation may play a role in many
DU anomalies. Because near-term consumption delivers only consumption utility
whereas future consumption delivers both consumption utility and anticipatory
utility, anticipatory utility provides a reason to prefer improvement and for getting
unpleasant outcomes over with quickly instead of delaying them as discounting
would predict. It provides a possible explanation for why people discount differ-
ent goods at different rates, because utility from anticipation creates a downward
bias on estimated discount rates, and this downward bias is larger for goods that
create more anticipatory utility. If, for instance, dreading future bad outcomes is a
u c c
c
v c
á ã
v c
ã
v c
ã
( ;
,
,. . .)
( )
[
(
)
(
) . . .]
.
τ
τ
τ
τ
τ
τ
+
+
+
+
=
+
+
+
<
1
2
1
2
2
1
for some
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