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F R E D E R I C K E T A L .
One way to identify sophistication is to look for evidence of commitment.
Someone who suspects that his or her preferences will change over time might
take steps to eliminate an inferior option that might tempt one later. For example,
someone who currently prefers $110 in 31 days to $100 in 30 days but who sus-
pects that in a month she will prefer $100 immediately to $110 tomorrow, might
attempt to eliminate the $100 reward from the later choice set, and thereby bind
herself
now
to receive the $110 reward in 31 days. Real-world examples of com-
mitment include “Christmas clubs” or “fat farms.”
Perhaps the best empirical demonstration of a preference for commitment was
conducted by Ariely and Wertenbroch (2002). In that study, MIT executive-
education students had to write three short papers for a class and were assigned
to one of two experimental conditions. In one condition, deadlines for the three
papers were imposed by the instructor and were evenly spaced across the semes-
ter. In the other condition, each student was allowed to set his or her own dead-
lines for each of the three papers. In both conditions, the penalty for delay was 1
percent per day late, regardless of whether the deadline was externally imposed or
self-imposed. Although students in the free-choice condition could have made all
three papers due at the end of the semester, many in fact did choose to impose
deadlines on themselves, suggesting that they appreciated the value of commit-
ment. Few students chose evenly spaced deadlines, however, and those who did
not performed worse in the course than those with evenly spaced deadlines
(whether externally imposed or self-imposed).
20
O’Donoghue and Rabin (1999b) examine how people’s behaviors depend on
their sophistication about their own time inconsistency. Some behaviors, such as
using illiquid assets for commitment, require some degree of sophistication.
Other behaviors, such as overconsumption or procrastination, are more robust to
the degree of awareness, though the degree of misbehavior may depend on the de-
gree of sophistication. To understand such effects, O’Donoghue and Rabin (2001)
introduce a formal model of
partial naïvete
, in which a person is aware that he or
she will have future self-control problems but under-estimates their magnitude.
They show that severe procrastination cannot occur under complete sophistica-
tion, but can arise if the person is only a little naïve. (For more discussion on self-
awareness see O’Donoghue and Rabin, chap. 7 in this volume.)
The degree of sophistication versus naïvete has important implications for pub-
lic policy. If people are sufficiently sophisticated about their own self-control
problems, providing commitment devices may be beneficial. If people are naïve,
however, policies might be better aimed at either educating people about loss of
control (making them more sophisticated), or providing incentives for people to
use commitment devices, even if they don’t recognize the need for them.
20
A similar “natural” experiment was recently conducted by the Economic and Social Research
Council of Great Britain. They recently eliminated submission deadlines and now accept grant pro-
posals on a “rolling” basis (though they are still reviewed only periodically). In response to this policy
change, submissions have actually declined by 15 to 20% (direct correspondence with Chris Caswill
at ESRC).
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