187
T I M E D I S C O U N T I N G
generate new predictions about the specific circumstances (other than temporal
proximity) that can trigger myopic behavior.
The fact that visceral states are endogenous introduces issues of state-man-
agement (as discussed by Loewenstein [1999] and Laibson [2001] under the rubric
of “cue management”). While the model (atleast the rational version of it) predicts
that one would want oneself to use drugs if one were to experience a sufficiently
strong craving, it also predicts that one might want to prevent ever experiencing such
a strong craving. Hence, visceral influences can give rise to a preference for commit-
ment in the sense that the person may want to avoid certain situations.
Visceral influences may do more than merely change the instantaneous utility
function. First, evidence shows that people don’t fully appreciate the effects of
visceral influences, and hence may not react optimally to them (Loewenstein
1996, 1999, 2000b). When in a hot state, people tend to exaggerate how long the
hot state will persist, and, when in a cold state, people tend to underestimate how
much future visceral influences will affect their future behavior. Second, and per-
haps more importantly, people often would “prefer” not to respond to an intense
visceral factor such as rage, fear, or lust, even at the moment they are succumbing
to its influence. A way to understand such effects is to apply the distinction pro-
posed by Kahneman (1994) between “experienced utility,” which reflects one’s
welfare, and “decision utility,” which reflects the attractiveness of options as in-
ferred from one’s decisions. By increasing the decision utility of certain types of
actions more than the experienced utility of those actions, visceral factors may
drive a wedge between what people do and what makes them happy. Bernheim
and Rangel (2001) propose a model of addiction framed in these terms.
More
“
Extreme
”
Alternative Perspectives
The alternative models discussed thus far modify the DU model by altering the
discount function or adding additional arguments to the instantaneous utility
function. The alternatives discussed next involve more radical departures from the
DU model.
PROJECTION BIAS
In many of the alternative models of utility discussed thus far, the person’s utility
from consumption—her tastes—change over time. To properly make intertempo-
ral decisions, one must correctly predict how one’s tastes will change. Essentially
all economic models of changing tastes assume (as economists typically do) that
such predictions are correct—that people have “rational expectations.” Loewenstein,
O’Donoghue, and Rabin (2000), however, propose that, while people may antici-
pate the qualitative nature of their changing preferences, they tend to underesti-
mate the magnitude of these changes—a systematic misprediction they label
projection bias
.
Loewenstein, O’Donoghue, and Rabin review a broad array of evidence that
demonstrates the prevalence of projection bias, then model it formally. To illustrate
their model, consider projection bias in the realm of habit formation. As discussed
Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |