188
F R E D E R I C K E T A L .
earlier, suppose the period-
t
instantaneous utility function takes the form
u
(
c
t
;
z
t
),
where
z
t
is a state variable that captures the effects of past consumption. Projec-
tion bias arises when a person whose current state is
z
t
must predict his or her
future utility given future state
z
t
. Projection bias implies that the person’s predic-
tion
˜
u
(
c
t
;
z
t
|
z
t
) will lie between his or her true future utility
u
(
c
t
;
z
t
) and his or her
utility given the person’s current state
u
(
c
t
;
z
t
). A particularly simple functional
form is
˜
u
(
c
t
;
z
t
|
z
t
)
5
(1
2
a
)
u
(
c
t
;
z
t
)
1
a
u
(
c
t
;
z
t
) for some
a
P
[0,1].
Projection bias may arise whenever tastes change over time, whether through
habit formation, changing reference points, or changes in visceral states. It can
have important behavioral and welfare implications. For instance, people may un-
derappreciate the degree to which a present consumption splurge will raise their
reference consumption level, and thereby decrease their enjoyment of more mod-
est consumption levels in the future. When intertemporal choices are influenced
by projection bias, estimates of time preference may be distorted.
MENTAL-ACCOUNTING MODELS
Some researchers have proposed that people do not treat all money as fungible,
but instead assign different types of expenditures to different “mental accounts”
(see Thaler 1999 for a recent overview). Such models can give rise to intertempo-
ral behaviors that seem odd when viewed through the lens of the DU model.
Thaler (1985), for instance, suggests that small amounts of money are coded as
spending money, whereas larger amounts of money are coded as savings, and that
a person is more willing to spend out of the former account. This accounting rule
would predict that people will behave like spendthrifts for small purchases (for
example, a new pair of shoes), but act more frugally when it comes to large pur-
chases (for example, a new dining-room table).
24
Benartzi and Thaler (1995) sug-
gest that people treat their financial portfolios as a mental account, and emphasize
the importance of how often people “evaluate” this account. They argue that if
people review their portfolios once a year or so, and if people experience joy or
pain from any gains or losses, as assumed in Kahneman and Tversky’s (1979)
prospect theory, then such “myopic loss-aversion” represents a plausible explana-
tion for the equity premium puzzle.
Prelec and Loewenstein (1998) propose another way in which mental account-
ing might influence intertemporal choice. They posit that payments for consump-
tion confer immediate disutility or “pain of paying,” and that people keep mental
accounts that link the consumption of a particular item with the payments for it.
They also assume that people engage in “prospective accounting.” According to
prospective accounting, when consuming, people think only about current and fu-
ture payments; past payments don’t cause pain of paying. Likewise, when paying,
24
While it seems possible that this conceptualization could explain the magnitude effect as well, the
magnitude effect is found for very “small” amounts (for example, between $2 and $20 in Ainslie and
Haendel [1983]), and for very “large amounts” (for example, between $10,000 and $1,000,000 in
Raineri and Rachlin [1993]). It seems highly unlikely that respondents would consistently code the
lower amounts as spending and the higher amounts as savings across all of these studies.
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