Conscription of Jews
The first measure was to equate Jews with the Russian population in bearing the burdens
of state, namely to apply the conscription laws to young Jewish men, something which had never
before been attempted. Prior to this, Jews had instead been taxed for the privilege of not serving
their country. At this point in history draftees in Imperial Russia were inducted between the ages
of 12 and 25, and for no less than 25 years. The underlying purpose of the new conscription law
was to reduce the number of Jews who were not engaged in productive labor, but it was also
believed that isolating a recruit from a wholly Jewish environment and breaking the iron spiritual
hand of the rabbis would facilitate adaptation to the nationwide order of life. Gradually greater
numbers of Jews were called to the colors and at earlier ages.
The Imperial decree on Jewish conscription met with massive resistance and evasion.
There was much internal opposition from within the government itself, and various departments
were slow to implement the order. The Council of Ministers debated as to whether it was ethical
to take such a measure “to limit the multitude of the Jews” and “recognized the impropriety of
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taking people for money,” as Finance Minister E.F. Kankrin wrote. The kagalom (kahals) made
every possible effort to protect the Jewish population from impending conscription or somehow
to delay it. Exasperated by the foot-dragging, Nicholas ordered the relevant authorities to submit
a final report as soon as possible, but the kahals seem to have exerted every possible influence to
slow the process down or tie it up with bureaucratic red tape. Some military officers were also
opposed to the move, and somehow the report was never filed. Yu. Hesse concludes “That
mysterious episode hardly occurred without the participation of the Kahal.” Nicholas,
exasperated, introduced conscription for Jews on his own in 1827.
There were loopholes in the new law. It completely exempted merchants of all guilds,
residents of agricultural colonies, guild masters, mechanics in factories, rabbis, and all Jews who
had secondary or higher education. This had the effect of Jews rushing frantically to enter
themselves or their sons into the exempted occupations, or to obtain fraudulent documentation
that they had done so. One common trick was to hire a Christian substitute to report for
induction; at one stage the going rate for a Gentile recruit to replace a Jewish one was 500 rubles.
In any event, records show that on average in most years only 10 conscripts per 1000 Jewish
males were served with call-up notices.
The Jews protested that the bulk of conscription came down on the back of the Jewish
poor. In 1829, Nicholas I attempted to take in an excess of Jewish recruits to cover unpaid back
taxes from the Jewish community. This measure was soon halted due to abuse on the part of both
excessively zealous local authorities and Jews who moved heaven and earth to evade the draft.
Hesse wrote of this period that it was an “abnormality” in Russian legislation, and in Russia in
general there was a tendency to impose greater obligations on the Jews that on other subjects due
to their alien nature.
Nicholas I remained determined to convert Jews into ordinary Russian citizens. One such
project was the creation of “cantonments” similar to those created by Peter the Great in the 18th
century for the sons of soldiers serving those long 25-year hitches, a kind of school for training
military children and orphans for later service with the army. The revival of this traditional
institution was thought by bureaucrats of the time to be quite suitable for Jewish boys, desirable
because it would create early and long separation from their Jewish environment. With this in
view, the 1827 decree granted the Jewish community at its discretion the right to provide a minor
male child not younger than 12 years of age in place of a single adult recruit.
The New Jewish Encyclopedia refers to this measure as “a most heavy blow.” This was
not exactly conscription as such, since the Russian army did not accept 12-year-old soldiers, but
it gave the government a chance to remove at least a few young Jews from the shtetl, get them
out of the yeshivas, place them in a secular environment in the cantonments and give them a
proper education in some kind of physical and beneficial trade. At the age of 18 they would enter
the regular army and exercise these trades. Local Kahals appear to have on at least some
occasions used this provision to fob the army off with the 12-year-old son of a poor family
instead of a more economically or socially desirable young man, recompensing the new recuit’s
family monetarily for the loss of their son.
According to statistics from the military archives of the General Staff accounts, in 1847-
1854, the years most young Jews were sent to cantonments, they accounted for an average of
2.4% from all the cantonments in Russia, that is, their share does not exceed the proportionate
share of the Jewish population the country, even according to the low kagalom data for the then
Census.
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It should be said that conditions in the Imperial army were not quite as grim as they may
sound today. Soldiers were allowed to marry and live with their families in their place of
garrison, and at the end of their 25 years of service could be given land in agricultural colonies or
legal residence in towns and cities to practice a trade. Jews, however, were conditioned to a
sedentary life in the more desirable cities and provinces of the Empire. Jewish soldiers found it
difficult to maintain their faith, keep the Sabbath, adhere to the kosher dietary laws, and so on.
Jewish youngsters in the cantonment schools found it still more difficult to remain “good
Jews” in the face of deliberate state pressure to secularize and adapt themselves to the modern
world. One of the first things they were taught was to read and write in Cyrillic Russian, thus
giving them intellectual access to the world outside the shtetl. It is difficult to determine how
effective the cantonments were in secularizing or converting Jewish pupils. Jewish literature and
oral tradition from this period are full of horror stories of abuse and coerced conversion, Jewish
children drowned in rivers if they refused to become Christians, and so on. (800 of them at one
go, according to legend, in a botched attempt at mass baptism.) At this distance in time it is hard
to ascertain the degree of truth in these allegations, especially given the historical propensity of
the Jewish people to embellish the undoubted reality of their suffering down through the
centuries. It is certain that Nicholas I and his government proceeded with a deliberate policy of
separating the Jewish students in the military cantonment schools from their heritage and
dragging them into the modern world willy-nilly. However, stories of hundreds of Jewish
children drowned in rivers by Czarist bureaucrats may probably be disregarded.
Obviously some of the students in the cantonments must have converted in order to
obtain the benefits of full participation in Russian society, and it was later to their advantage to
exaggerate in the eyes of the Tribe the degree of force and coercion to which they were
subjected. Also, as took place in Spain and elsewhere down through the centuries, many of the
conversions were false conversions of convenience, and those involved continued to practice
Judaism in secret.
After a Belarusian famine in 1822 Alexander I had sent inspectors to the Pale, and they
essentially returned with the same conclusions that Derzhavin made a quarter of a century
before. In 1823 the Czar established a Jewish Committee consisting of four ministers to address
yet again the issue on what to do with the Jews and how to transform them into useful and
productive citizens of the Russian state living in at least some semblance of peace and harmony
with their Christian neighbors. In 1825 this Jewish Committee of ministers was replaced by a
Director’s Committee (the fifth in a row) consisting of directors of departments, which studied
and largely evaded the problem for another eight years.
Nicholas I was too impatient to await this committee’s final report and so he unilaterally
introduced Jewish conscription, as described above. Once again the Czar decreed a three-year
period for the expulsion of the Jews from the villages of the western provinces, to at least try and
get them away from the border areas, as well as a ban on their selling wine and liquor. Later he
prohibited actual ownership or leasing of taverns and inns by Jews, but as was the case with all
such measures, enforcement was spotty at best. In 1827 Nicholas introduced what amounted to a
national liquor licensing system throughout the Empire, along with an attempt to turn many
taverns throughout the Empire into government postal stations and lease them out to Christians,
but without the Jews there were not enough bidders. What inevitably occurred was that official
licenses for the sale of alcohol and tavern and inn leases fell into the hands of Jews, through
various acts of chicanery or simple outright bribery of local officials. State efforts to compel
Jews to perform productive physical labor failed time and again.
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Another prominent Jewish economic activity in Imperial Russian history was the hated
practice of tax farming. In addition to the high level of income though both legitimate and
corrupt taxation, tax farmers under the Czars enjoyed full rights of residence and freedom of
movement, and lived freely in the capital and other cities outside the Pale. Some tax farmers
became prominent Jewish public figures, such as Feigin and Litman Evzel Gunzburg who went
on to found a St. Petersburg banking house, the largest in Russia, and later took part in the
placement of Russian and foreign government loans.
In 1826, Nicholas I ordered the eviction back to the Pale of Settlement of Jewish distillers
and tavern keepers who had infiltrated into Great Russia, and in an attempt to replace them the
state-owned and state-operated liquor industry was born, but with little success as far as barring
Jews went. Jews infiltrated the state distilleries such as those in Irkutsk.
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