The “New Russia” Experiment
At the time of the Regulations of 1804, when the clear intention was to evict Jews from
the villages of the sensitive and potentially dangerous western provinces, the governmental
authorities asked the question: where to relocate them? Cities and towns were already densely
populated, and this was exacerbated by the fierce competition in petty trade at a very weak point
in the development of productive labor. Meanwhile, the vast south of Ukraine was sparsely
populated, almost empty. It made obvious sense to evict from the villages the unproductive
Jewish mass and turn them to agriculture in what was called New Russia. Ten years earlier,
Catherine tried to implement this idea, including a double tax to encourage Jewish emigration,
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but this measure failed because there was no accurate census or accounting of the numbers and
whereabouts of the Jewish population. The Jews were known only by first names or nicknames
and the Kahal hid almost half the Jewish population from the authorities.
Now 30,000 acres of land were specifically allocated solely for the use of Jews, as an
initial land grant with the possibility of further grants based on need. The government offered
generous benefits for immigrants: in New Russia Jews could receive hereditary possession (not
ownership) for a family of 40 tithes (the Russian average peasant allotment was a few tithes,
rarely as much as ten), cash loans for relocation and device management (the purchase of
livestock, equipment and so on), loans repayable only after 10 years, and a preliminary
construction of chopped-timber huts for immigrants (in this area not only all poor men but even
some landowners lived adobe houses). In addition there was an exemption from taxes for 10
years, and this while preserving personal liberty in the time of serfdom and the legal protection
of the authorities .
Enlightened Jewish figures, while still very few (Notkin, Levinsohn), also supported the
government’s initiative and were reasonably aware of the need for the Jewish people to move to
productive work, although they emphasized that this should be achieved by measures of
encouragement rather than coercion.
The epic of Jewish agriculture in Russia is presented in bulky and painstaking labor by
the Jew V. N. Nikitin, who devoted many years to the study of the vast and unpublished archives
of the official correspondence in Petersburg on the subject of Jewish settlement in New Russia.
All this is abundantly represented in his book, with layered sets of documents and statistics from
multiple sources and sometimes contradictory reports from inspectors over a period of many
years, overly rich for our very brief overview of the material here. Nikitin admits that the
government’s goal, besides the problem of development of vast uninhabited land, was to settle
Jews and to bring them into productive physical labor and to remove them from the “bad trades”
in which they had for so many years inflicted misery on the peasants and the serfs. “The
government ... invites them to apply themselves to agriculture, with a view to improving their
own life.” The Jews were not lured by the promises of the government, and on the contrary
evaded resettlement by a variety of means.
The resettlement idea was essentially benevolent in intention, but it was not in conformity
with the desires of the Jews themselves and was frankly beyond the limited organizational
capabilities of the Russian administration. It was reserved for the Jews in the New Russia
Tithing, and then for decades kept inviolable just for them. Publicist I.G. Orsha later expressed
the proposition that Jewish agriculture could only be successful through the transfer of state-
owned land to the Jews right there nearby in Belarus, in the villages where they had lived before.
However, there simply wasn’t enough state land in Belarus for the purpose. For example in
Grodno Province there were only 200 tithes of state land, and this poor and infertile soil where
the entire population suffered from crop failure.
However, the Jews were not in a hurry to become farmers. Only three dozen families
applied to move to New Russia. The hope of the Jews was that their eviction from their villages
in the western region, i.e. Poland, would be delayed or canceled or simply forgotten. They were
given a three-year term to relocate under the Regulations of 1804, but still delayed, and
migration did not start. As the fateful deadline of January 1, 1808 approached, a kind of rush
developed especially since rumors of profitability had grown. Now a few Jews began to apply,
although nowhere near the entire Jewish population of Belarus. Some even secretly went in
groups without permission and even without the passport.
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The Kherson office of trustees for Jewish settlers had not had time to build houses, dig
wells, and steppe distance created a lack of master craftsman, doctors and veterinarians. The
government did not stint any money or reasonable accommodation nor sympathy for the settlers,
but the governor of Richelieu in 1807 asked St. Petersburg to limit the pace of introduction to
200-300 families per year, and only to receive those who were able to move at their own
expense. In the case of crop failure the state fed these people for several years in a row. Poor
settlers received daily food. However, the governors of the western region began randomly
expelling Jews from their territories and losing track of how many had been expelled, and many
Jews who were allegedly bound for settlements in New Russia simply disappeared along the way
into the cities or shtetls of the countryside.
The immense distances on the Ukrainian steppe, where there could be up to three
hundred miles from the office to the colony, made it almost impossible for the authortities to
exercise any control or even to make any accurate assessment over how many and who was
arriving. There was a lack of housing, wells, and facilities. Lack of accurate administration,
correct accounting and distribution led to the fact that some settlers received more than others.
They complained about the non-receipt of feed and loans. The small colony caretakers were
unable to function. Rangers were paid a miserable wage, they often did not have horses, and had
to try to operate on foot. In many cases, after two years at the new location the settlers had no
economy, no crops, no food.
There were problems with the settlers’ land titles. Records-keeping on deductions and
loans was a shambles; loan money disappeared and so did many of the Jewish settlers, who
appeared in the colonies, got whatever they could get by way of loans or goods from the
government, and then fled to nearby cities where they loitered and resumed their former habits of
money-lending, liquor-selling, merchandising and other wonted trades minimal on physical
labor. Many offices and inspection reports reflect how the new settlers were farming. The settlers
claimed to be completely ignorant of the most basic principles of agriculture and the state ended
up hiring Russian peasants to teach them how to farm. Jews were given special allocations of
seed grain that were either wasted or sold; they were given agricultural implements that they
broke or sold. They slaughtered their cattle for food, and then complained about the lack of
cattle. Many Jews got their start as auctioneers and livestock brokers through selling off their
own livestock given to them by the government. The homes provided for them by the
government were not maintained and were illegally sold to Russian peasants.
Many complained that they did not expect that they themselves would certainly be forced
to engage in agricultural work, but obviously they understood corn-hired workers, cattle markets
and and trade fairs.
Settlers continued to beg for help from the treasury. They complained that they had no
clothing, but government inspectors stated that this was because they would not keep sheep or
sew hemp, and Jewish women either could not or would not spin or weave. In his report one of
the inspectors stated that “the Jews cannot cope with the economy of the worry-free life, due to
small diligence and inexperience in rural work.” However, he considered it appropriate to add
“one ought to prepare for agriculture from a young age and Jews 45 and 50 years old who have
lived a pampered life cannot soon make farmers.”) The fiscal expenditures required to maintain
the settlers doubled and tripled, and the local officials were all the time requesting supplements.
St. Petersburg determined that many of the problems came down to the fact that the Jews
intentionally evaded tillage. The influx of Jewish settlers on the public expense in the New
Russia, out of control and failing miserably, was temporarily suspended in 1810. In 1811 the
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Senate restored the right of Jews to sell wine in the state-owned villages repurchased in the Pale,
and when it was learned in New Russia, the news caused many who had migrated to New Russia
to leave and return to whence they came, and many others to open illegal taverns and establish
illegal alcohol trades in New Russia itself. By 1812 it was revealed that already out of a
settlement of 848 families left, there were 538 absences in 88 families where Jews had gone to
Kherson, Nikolaev, Odessa, even Poland.
The government understood that the program was a débacle, and probably would have
given up on the project sooner than it did, had there been some reliable way to recover the vast
sums of money they had spent on trying to relocate the Jews and turn them into farmers. How to
ensure the return of the treasury debt to those who would be allowed to switch occupations from
being farmers; how to fix, without burdening the treasury, the shortcomings of those people who
remain farmers, and how to achieve the central goal of changing the character of the Jewish
people and dealing with the problem they represented to Russian society? Neglect, absence,
delay in delivery of grain or funds; Jews who sold property they had been given to start news
lives with; as well as abuse such as bribery for permission for a long absence even for the main
workers in the family, which caused the destruction of the economy immediately.
In the state of the Jewish colonies and after the 1810-1812 is is hard to see improvement.
Oxen, livestock and implements were sold or abused or broken. Fields were sown late and thin,
and as close as possible to their homes. Other fields were sown five or more years in a row, and
no potatoes were planted to replace bread. Year after year local authorities reported crop failures
or “seed not collected.” (Under the terms of the Regulations, a bad harvest meant settlers would
be entitled to absence in order to work elsewhere.) Jews did not cherish their livestock. Oxen
were used to pay rent, with the bulls were hired out for carting, cattle were starved and then
slaughtered for food and claims for compensation put in to the government claiming the animals
had died of disease.
The Jewish settlers refused to take the most basic care of their property or animals. “They
do not care to have a strong barn or pen to which to divert the cattle at night. It would be
difficult; at night they indulge in endless sleep; shepherds are children or lazy, and on holidays
and Saturday they drive all without shepherds and will not even try to catch thieves. They
murmur against their coreligionists who work hard and bring in excellent harvests, lest the
authorities will say this shows the ability of Jews to do agriculture, and compel them to engage in
it.” They “do not fit with the agriculture ... they set out secretly to practice as little arable farming
as they can, so as to give the appearance of failure that they might be allowed to return to the sale
of wine, again allowed to their co-religionists [back in Old Russia]. Cattle, tools and seed they
buy several times, again and again to lend to feed. Quite many of them, getting a loan, and
regardless of the masters, are in the village just in time for cash distributions, and then go with
money to county towns and villages for fisheries.” Others endowed with land sold it and albeit in
vagrancy, lived in Russian settlements for several months, sometimes with passports missing.
That unsettled Izrailevka Kherson province, “its settlers considered themselves entitled to engage
in fisheries and settled only to enjoy the benefits” of the 32 families who lived on the site of 13.
Numerous inspections noted the absence of female Jewish agricultural workers. When
Jewish women married their parents entered into conditions with the prospective bridegroom that
did not force them either to heavy field work, or even to carry water or daub huts; hired workers
would do this. Jewish husbands were also contractually bound to procure them ornaments for the
holidays fox and rabbit fur bracelets, hats, and even pearls, things of luxury and extravagance
such as silk, silver and gold These conditions forced the young people to meet the whims of their
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wives to the ruin of their farms, while other settlers did not have winter clothes. Marriage took
place too early, significantly sooner among the Jews than among the other peasants. Large
extended families created all living in the same house created untidiness of life and scurvy. But
some women did marry commoners and leave the settlements .
In numerous denunciations from Jewish settlers from different colonies were heard
repeated complaints that prairie land was so solid that it required four pairs of oxen to plow, the
frequent crop failures, the lack of water, lack of fuel, poor pernicious climate leading to disease,
to hail, locusts. There was some truth to this but much exaggeration as well. Settlers with the
smallest of grievances immediately complained and always increased their claims, but when they
were right they were compensated.
However, says Nikitin, in the same wilderness, in the same years, the same virgin soil,
and under the same locusts, German colonists and Mennonites and Bulgarians prospered, at least
by comparison to the Jews. They suffered the same lean years, the same disease, but they always
had bread and cattle, lived in in clean and attractive houses with many outbuildings, ample
gardens and greenhouses. (The difference was so striking that individual German colonists were
invited to live in the Jewish colonies that they might pass on the experience and set an example.)
The Russian peasants, says Nikitin by way of explanation “gravitated over them the yoke of
serfdom ... they took everything stoically and demolished any adversity. Jewish colonists bailed
out everywhere ... they attracted runaway serfs who wre paid by the settled colonists. Farmer-
Jews took in vagabonds with affection and greetings for the tramp who willingly helped them to
plow, sow and reap ; and some, to better hide, even joined the Jewish religion. These cases were
detected and in 1820 the government forbade Jews to take Christians into their service.
Meanwhile, in 1817 the 10-year tax exemption for Jewish settlers ended, and now the
time had come to equalize them in taxes with the state peasants. Immediately a movement started
of settlers’ collective petitions, but also among officials, requesting an extension of benefits for
another 15 years. Golitsyn, a personal friend of Alexander I, the Minister of Education and
Religious Affairs, who dealt with all matters relating to the Jews made a decision: to extend the
Jews’ tax exemption for 5 years, and the payment of the debt for the loan to 30 years. Nikitin
found these petitions by Jewish colonists “extremely characteristic in their content.”
In 1807 Ilier Menashe, a prominent Talmudic scholar, but also a champion of education,
published and sent to rabbis his book (soon withdrawn from circulation by the rabbinate, and
next subject to mass burning), in which he noted the dark side of Jewish life. There was poverty
and unusually large families, but “could it be otherwise, when the mouths of the Jews were more
than the hands? It is necessary to convince the mass [of Jews] that their own work should
produce their own livelihood ... Young people do not have any earnings, yet they marry, hoping
for the mercy of God and the purse-law, and when this support is crumbling, they are already
burdened with families, they rush to the first available activity, even if not honest. Crowds take
up trade, but it cannot feed all, and therefore it is necessary to resort to deception. That is why it
is desirable that the Jews turn to farming. Bums under the mask of ‘scholars’ live at the expense
of charity and at the expense of the community. There is nobody to take care of the people: the
rich are busy thinking about profit, and the rabbis the strife between the Hasidim and mitnagdim
(Orthodox Jews). And the only concern of the Jewish leaders is to prevent bad luck in the form
of government regulations, even if they carry with them the benefit of the people.” And now,
“the existence of a significant Jewish population serves as a small commercial and industrial and
intermediary activity. Jews overly fill the cities with petty trade” And how could it be healthy,
the economy of the Jewish people in such circumstances?
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However, a later Jewish author, already in the middle of the 20th century wrote about that
time: “It is true that Jewish masses lived in poverty and distress. But the Jewish collective as a
whole was not a beggar,” They saw the life of Jews of the western provinces, participants in
Napoleon’s army in 1812, just pass through these places. Under Dokshycy (?) Jews were “rich
and prosperous, they conduct major trade with the whole of Russian Poland and even visit the
Leipzig Trade Fair.” The Jews had the right to produce alcohol and vodka and honey, they were
tenants or owners with taverns located on the main roads. The Jews of Mogilev were prosperous
and conducted extensive trade (although “along with them were the terrfying poor.”). Almost all
the local Jews had patents on the trade in alcohol. More from a third-party witness: “in Kiev ...
countless Jews.” The common feature of Jewish life was satisfaction, although not universally.
From psychological and domestic point of view, observers found Russian Jewry
characterized by “constant vigilance to his fate and identity, to his struggle and self-defense.”
The “domineering and authoritative social forms for the preservation of life” were prominent in
them. Adaptation to the new conditions of life was largely a collective adaptation and not
individual. And we need to appreciate the organic coalescence and unity, which in the first half
of the 19th century gave Russian Jewry a definable character in the world. This world was too
small, limited, and subject to harassment associated with suffering and hardship, and yet to them
it was the whole world. Man there is not choked. It was possible in this world to feel the joy of
life to be found in it, to find material and spiritual sustenance, and it was possible to build a life
in it to taste and mood. The value here was the fact that the spiritual aspect of the team had been
associated with traditional scholarship and the Jewish language.
Another author of the same collection of accounts of Russian Jewry noted that “injustice,
material poverty and social humiliation hampers the growth of self-esteem among the people.”
Like almost every question related to Judaism, it is difficult and the picture presented here is of
those years. We should never lose sight of this complexity and always keep it in mind,
undeterred by apparent contradictions between different authors.
Once, before the expulsion from Spain, Judaism marched in front of other people on the
path of progress, Eastern European Judaism now came to the first half of the 18th century, to
complete cultural impoverishment. Disenfranchised and isolated from the outside world, it
withdrew into itself. The Renaissance passed without affecting it, as did the intellectual
movements of the 18th century in Europe. But this Jew was strong within himself. Bound by
countless religious prescriptions and prohibitions, a Jew was not only burdened by them but also
saw them as a source of endless joy. His mind found satisfaction in the small dialectics of the
Talmud, in the sense of mysticism of Kabbalah. Even Bible study receded into the background,
and knowledge of grammar was considered almost a crime.
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