parties (91 percent of respondents specified the tax authorities), and
(b) require businesses to provide statistical information on their
economic activity (IFC, 2004).
Moreover, the majority of the bankers interviewed in this study
indicated that direct and indirect interventions, which can be in
the form of decrees and resolutions as well as verbal orders by
the authorities in everyday bank activities, were preventing banks
from working as profit-oriented market institutions. The banking
sector was forced to perform two conflicting functions: it had to act
as a financial intermediary, and to work as a branch of the finance
department of the government. Indeed, complaining about these
practices and excessive interventions by the local governing bodies
in everyday bank activities, a branch manager of a regional bank
said, “If the definition of an institution is based on the functions it
performs, then the word ‘bank’ has to be replaced with the phrase
‘branch of the Cabinet of Ministers’ in Uzbekistan.”
Another important issue is the continuation of the distinction be-
tween cash money and noncash money transactions. As in the past,
all transactions between legal entities (enterprises, organizations,
and individual entrepreneurs) are settled only in noncash money,
while households can use cash money. Moreover, the cash plan
practice continues because retail trade businesses are still required
to deposit all their daily cash receipts above a small threshold in
their bank accounts on a daily basis. Under the current regime, as in
the former days, enterprises are allowed to convert noncash money
into cash money only to pay wages, pensions, and other immediate
expenses, such as business travel expenses. In practice, however,
enterprises find it difficult to convert their noncash balances in
their bank accounts into cash. The household sector’s deposits are
affected too. Households cannot freely convert their deposits into
cash on demand.
The main reason for this is that the monetary authorities impose
restrictions on commercial banks’ corresponding accounts with the
central bank. As a result, although commercial banks have sufficient
balances in their correspondent accounts with the CBU (the required
reserve ratio, reduced from 20 percent to 15 percent in 2005, still
remains at a high level), they can withdraw only a limited amount of
26 PROBLEMS OF ECONOMIC TRANSITION
cash money from their correspondent accounts. In other words, when
commercial banks need cash and coins to meet customers’ demand
for cash withdrawals, the central bank meets their lawful demand
only partially. It should be noted that recently the authorities have
passed several resolutions to abolish some of the restrictions associ-
ated with the cash plan.
11
However, in practice, these new regulations
have changed very little if anything at all.
12
In terms of confidence building, the inability of banks to perform
the most basic but fundamental responsibility, that is, guaranteeing
free convertibility of their liabilities into cash money upon demand,
is one of the paramount reasons why banks are struggling so badly
to gain the general public’s confidence.
Continuation of the cash plan practice can also be explained by
the old-style generous credit creation in the country. The monetary
authorities acknowledge that the CBU granted centralized credits
to finance both working-capital needs and start-up capital of en-
terprises in strategic sectors of the economy when Uzbekistan was
still in the ruble zone. However, they affirm that, since the introduc-
tion of the national currency in July 1994, directed and centralized
financing from the central bank has been abolished (Mullajonov,
2001). Nonetheless, according to the World Bank the enterprise
sector still “
functions under . . . soft budget constraints
” (World
Bank, 2003, p. 11). Although the generous credit policy has been
helpful in preventing unemployment and output loss, it naturally
led to an excess supply of noncash money in the economy. The fact
that “excess noncash liquidity has been accumulating in the banking
sector” over the years is recognized by the EBRD as well (EBRD,
2003, p. 212). Since allowing free convertibility of noncash money
into cash money in this situation would result in an undesirably
higher rate of inflation, it is not difficult to see that, in a way, the
cash plan has been employed to deal with the inflationary side ef-
fects of Soviet-style credit allocation. Not surprisingly, Gemayel
and Grigorian observed that, in the Uzbek “government’s view,
what drives inflation is the amount of cash in circulation (and not
broader monetary aggregates); hence the desire to limit availability
of cash to curb inflationary pressures” (2005, p. 5).
Nevertheless, under central planning, targeting the cash money
jUNE 2009 27
circulation to curb inflation in nonorganized markets was mean-
ingful, because extra noncash money balances not envisaged in
material plans did not have any purchasing power of their own and
prices were fixed in organized markets. Under the current regime,
however, the markets are no longer divided into organized and
nonorganized ones and generally speaking prices are no longer
fixed by the planners. Moreover, although enterprises’ access to
cash money is limited, they have complete autonomy over their
noncash balances in interenterprise trade. As a result, the policy
of tackling inflation through squeezing cash money in circulation
is counterproductive. In the first place, and most important, this
policy is contributing to the erosion of the general public’s confi-
dence in banks. Second, although the cash plan may help to reduce
the rate of inflation measured in cash-based transactions, such as
the consumer price index (CPI), any potential windfall gains from
this policy will be reflected in the higher rate of inflation measured
in noncash-based transactions, such as the producer price index
(PPI). Indeed, during transition, the rate of inflation in wholesale
market prices, where transactions are predominantly carried out
using noncash money, has been persistently high relative to prices
in the retail market, where transactions are mostly effected using
cash money. As Figure 2 shows, the rate of inflation measured by
the PPI has consistently been higher relative to that measured by the
CPI during 1995–2006, the only exception occurring in 1997.
According to the IFC survey mentioned above, the systematic
shortage of cash money in the economy and the difficulty of obtain-
ing cash money from banks were the two top problems in operating
business accounts with banks. As Figure 3 shows, whereas in 2002
more than 50 percent of the respondents acknowledged that con-
verting noncash money into cash was problematic, by 2003 more
than 60 percent of respondents indicated that this was the single
most important problem.
These restrictions have led to the emergence of the difference be-
tween the values of cash money and noncash money in the economy.
As a result, noncash money is exchanged for cash money only at a
discount. Bankers interviewed also confirm that because of these
shortcomings the public does not rate cash money and noncash
28 PROBLEMS OF ECONOMIC TRANSITION
money as equally liquid. On average, the public considers noncash
money to be at least 10–15 percent less liquid than cash money.
According to the EBRD (2007), this problem still persists.
Although the private sector does not consider noncash money to
Figure 2.
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