189
Eco-service Trading
Schemes
take land out of production, due to the work ethic. However, paying farmers to convert degraded
land to natural habitat and to manage ferals, disease, fire hazards, etc can also foster both rural
revitalization and land regeneration, so it is a good investment for governments. Such programmes
could arguably even result in an increase in carrying capacity. The Victorian BushTender scheme in
Australia set the value of beneficial ecosystems restored by farmers through auctions.
An auction
assures a viable market value by definition; that is, a willing buyer and seller. But habitat protection
is somewhat complicated by the fact that ecosystems are open systems.
Waterways, for example,
have many upstream sources of pollution, degradation and diminution. The idea of creating a type
of trading system to protect ecosystems was used to protect wetlands as early as 1972.
The US Clean
Water Act required developers who destroyed a wetland to restore or conserve another wetland area
elsewhere. On the face of it, restoring one ecosystem to compensate for damaging another sounds
‘balanced’, but this is not necessarily so.
Couldn’t wetlands trading be net positive if it increased the total area?
If that worked, perhaps. In fact, an exchange rate was applied so that two new hectares of wetland
had to be restored or created for each hectare destroyed. But this was not very successful in
ecological terms.
From an ecological perspective, each wetland is unique, irreplaceable and wedded
to a particular location. For example, the destroyed wetland may have an – as yet unidentified
– endangered species that the new area does not.
Similarly, a new artificially created ecosystem is not
very likely to evolve into a healthy, resilient ecology. In any case, the wetlands provision of the Clean
Water Act was ineffective in preserving the total area of wetlands. Wetlands continued to disappear
at an alarming rate. In 1995, to improve the situation, private wetland restoration banks were allowed
to buy and restore wetlands. Developers who needed ‘points’ to obtain development approvals could
then buy wetland credits from organizations specializing in wetland restoration.
This reduced the
difficulties of enforcement and monitoring and worked better than the previous system in reducing
the rate of wetland destruction. However, even if some of these new ‘artificial wetlands’ survive, they
are seldom as ecologically sound as the ones they replaced.
14
A sustainable trading scheme would
require that the health, resilience and scale of whole systems were increased to the pre-development
level of biodiversity and ecosystem viability. Trading systems are beginning to make ecological
restoration possible, but this is mostly through exactions for damage elsewhere.
Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: