‘This is a wonderful book that should be on the desk of every architect and planner. It shows how


On what basis does urban planning choose among competing interests?



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Positive Development From Vicious Circles to V

On what basis does urban planning choose among competing interests?
In the 1960s, planning adopted a ‘pluralist’ political theory. This essentially adapted the market 
metaphor to planning.
3
This was intended to be an antidote to the centralized, top–down, ‘socialistic’ 
urban redevelopment of the post-war period.
4
Pluralism could be seen as ‘bottom–up’. However, 
interest group competition can lead to top–down power relationships over time. Winners emerge 
from among competing proposals, interests, policies and options. Competition, like choosing, is 
not a framework for designing a wider range of possibilities. Pluralist struggle is about winning out 


203
Bioregional Planning 
over other people or groups, not including the widest range of people and views. Of course, pluralist 
planning has descriptive value, as the dualistic, ‘either/or’ thinking that characterizes interest group 
politics has been an integral part of day-to-day planning practice. Development control often involves 
negotiating and bargaining with developers and/or mediating between developers and community 
groups. Thus a mantra among many planners has been ‘planning is politics – it is all about making 
tradeoffs’. Planners can, of course, require that developments include public uses or amenities. But in 
so doing, they are often in the position of supplicants, trying to extract concessions from developers 
and politicians. In this situation, planners are unlikely to challenge existing patterns of infrastructure, 
resource allocation and wealth transfers. Competition and tradeoffs can, of course, help to resolve 
short-term conflicts over land use and development. In general, though, compromise and offsets 
resolve planning conflicts at the expense of the public estate and ecological base.
Surely planners understand the interdependency of nature and society?
Indeed, and many planners have long understood that they must deal with multiple goals and 
wicked problems that emerge from our past lack of appreciation of interdependency.
5
It has not 
been appreciated, however, that the basis of business decision-making – choosing – was 
incompatible
with ‘planning for sustainability’ or expanding substantive choices. There is now a resurgence of 
the idea that there is a public good – not just competing individual or pluralist ‘interests’ to choose 
among.
6
The green movement was partly founded on the understanding that the public estate and 
ecological base is one interdependent whole. It is not just a compilation of resources to be allocated 
among petitioners by those wielding King Solomon’s sword. By using decision tools that entrench 
a process of 
choosing
, however subtle, planning theorists contributed to a development context 
that incrementally reduced future social choices. This reductionist conceptual framework (with 
its simplified ideas of decision-making and the decision-maker and its set of tacit values) arguably 
impedes ecological modernization. Participation and collaboration in planning provided a channel 
for taking into account and accommodating differing interests. However, so-called ‘bottom–up’, 
participatory planning processes do not, in themselves, protect social diversity and biodiversity.
Irreversible decisions, even though made incrementally and with community engagement, do not 
avoid ecological risks. Nor do they erase past mistakes.

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