The Invisible Constitution in Comparative Perspective

Cultural Change 805, 819.

71 

Ibid.

, 820.

72 

For an overview on policy changes in the Mao era and the Reform see: Susan K. McCarthy, 

‘The State, Minorities, and Dilemmas of Development in Contemporary China’ (2002) 26 

Fletcher Forum of World Affairs 107.

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420 

Han Zhai

State Council has established the fiscal transfer system in ethnic regions, cov-

ering all five autonomous regions, three provinces treated like those regions, 

including Qing Hai, Yunnan and Guizhou and all regional autonomous pre-

fectures outside the five autonomous regions.

73

 During 2000–15, the revenues 

transferred to the ethnic areas mentioned above reached 395.5 billion RMBs 

in total, with 58.2 billion RMBs solely in 2015.

74

 In some specific cases, such 

as the Tibet AR, subsidies from the central government in all terms took over  

95 per cent of regional expenditures from 1952 to 2013. At the same time, the 

way in which money from the central government has been spent remains 

another issue worth further investigation beyond the legal context.

75

The regional disparities have also resulted in a massive immigration of ethnic 

minorities to the cities. This has strengthened urban ethnicity identity, espe-

cially through labour market development.

76

 To address the growing mobile 

ethnic populations in cities, the State Council implemented the Regulation of 

Urban Ethnic Affairs for governments in 1993. The Regulation is in effect in 

both cities under the direct governance of the State Council and municipali-

ties lower than the provincial level, with a focus on social welfare and specific 

preferential policies of mobile ethnic workers.

77

 After practices that lasted more 

than ten years, the State Council sought public opinions for the amendment of 

the Regulation in 2016.

78

 Online submissions indicated a strong public will for 

greater integration between different ethnic groups, including Han Chinese, 

through an ‘embedded social structure’.

79

 This corresponds to the rise of ethnic 

awareness among both Han Chinese and ethnic minorities. With China deep-

ening its process of urbanisation, cities are becoming increasingly important 

sites for the negotiation, contestation and remaking of ethnic identity.

80

73 

This scope was expanded to all ethnic counties in 2006.

74 

The Financial Ministry of the PRC: ‘Further increase of the central avenues transfer to histor-

ical revolutionary base areas, ethnic areas, borderlands and poverty areas’ [中华人民共和国

财政部：

“中央财政2015年进一步加大转移支付力度支持革命老区、民族地区、边疆地

区、贫困地区发展

”] 

www.gov.cn/xinwen/2015-12/07/content_5020833.htm

.

75 

For a policy evaluation from the sociological perspective on Tibetan market participation un-

der central investment, see Wang Shiyong, ‘Policy Impact on Tibetan Market Participation’ 

(2009) 10 Asian Ethnicity 1.

76 

See Wu Jiaping, ‘The Rise of Ethnicity under China’s Market Reforms’ (2014) 38 International 

Journal of Urban and Regional Research 967.

77 

‘Regulations on the urban ethnic affairs’ (1993).

78 

Before 28 July 2016, the draft was available on the public opinions soliciting system of the 

China Government Legal Information Website which is supported by the Legislative Affairs 

Office of the State Council.

79 

Ibid.

80 

Jiaping, Supra note 76, 981.

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