The connection of S. with other branches of S. 1

Antonomasia (перенаименование) – is the use of a proper name instead of a common name and vise versa; the use of a discription, discriptional phrase instead of a proper name. A. is created either metaphorically or metonymycally. A frequent case of A. is the use of a name, of a historical or methological ch-re, to describe some features of a personage or to express the general idea (“He is a Napoleon of the crime” – great criminal)
Metaphorical and metonymycal cases. Proper names in these cases express some quality, which is the leading char-c (Shailock – greedy person). Met. A. is widely used not only in lit-re, it transferes some proper name to an object connected with.
A common noun may be used as a proper name. This type of A. helps to give the first char-n of the personage. It is called descriptive names, taken names (Miss Swindle – надувательство; Herr Gingle – очень разговорчивый).
Very often A. helps to give concrete expression for abstract notions and is blending with allegory (“What cah be prefered than an image of love on his knees before beauty”).
Sometimes the m-ng of a proper name is aquired by a w-d-combination or a whole phrase (“Your missis-what’s-her-name sounds firmly British”).
4) Tropes based on relations

1. Honest deceptions(tropes based on inner qualities) - hyperbole - litotes - irony

2. Tropes based on differences - climax - anticlimax

3. Tropes base on conrast - antithesis - oxymoron

4. Tropes based on equality - synonyms - euphomisms - periphrasis

1. The 3 tropes: hyperbole (the figure of overstatements), litotes (the figure of understatement) and irony are connected in that, that they misprepresent the truth: hyperbole distorts by saying too much, litotes – too little, irony – by saying or implying the opposite of the truth.
Hyperbole – is a trope, in which emphasis is achieved by deliberate exageration, overstatement.
Ex. All the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand.
H. differs from mere exageration, from a lie, because it is intended to be understood as an exageration.
Functions:

• 
  intensification of the m-ng
  
• 
  the emotional colouring of the utterance
  
• 
  humorous or satirical effect (Alice swims in a pool of her one tears)
  

Through continuous usage, H. may lose its originality and become triet. Such cases of H. are used in lit-re only in direct speech to show the emotional state of the personage in the moment of speech.
Litotes (plain, simple) – is a trope, in which emphasis is achieved by deliberate understatement. In many cases an affirmation (утверждение) is expressed by denying its contrary.
Ex. He is not fool. Not half bad.
He was a man, take him for all and all, I shall not look upon his like again.
Functions:

• 
  the impression of restrained mooleration
  
• 
  irony, humour
  
• 
  helps to express personal feelings.
  

Irony – is a device, by which the writer expresses a m-ng contradictory to the stated or imployed one. It is the use of a w-d in the m-ng directly oppsite to its usual one. I. may be subtained.
Ex. Our admirable constitution - the pride of nation and envy of the surrounding nations.
I. worka better, when it’s hidden. Sometimes one s-ce will suffy to understand the interaction b/w logical and contextual m-ng, but often a much wider context is needed. I. is more or less subtle or skillful mockery. And its effect often depends on its unexpectedness or seeming lack of logic. I. is often stressed by lofty w-ds.
Ex. His designs were srictly honorable as the sume is: that is to rab a lady of her fortune
by way of marriage.
There are many techniques for achieving ironic effect:

• 
  the writer makes it clear, that the intended m-ng is the oppsiter of a literal one (But Brutos is an honorable one)
  
• 
  the writer may constract the discrapancy b/w the appearance of the situation and the reality, which underlines it
  
• 
  the disparity, the discrapancy b/w the style and the subject, b/w the manner and the man
  

I. varies in subtlety and its range is rather wide. Sometimes it may come close to humour, be gentle and soft. Humour as well as I. causes laughter, but is intended to improve slight imprefections. The object of humpur is a funny incedent or an odd feature of human ch-re, at which we laugh good-naturedly.
Ex. There was never yet a phylosopher, that could indure the toothache patiently.
On the other hand, i. may come close to sarcasm and express some negative emtions: disguast, moligration, irretation. Sarcasm is bilter coustic tarent. It doesn’t contain any hidden m-ng, it is overobvious and always cutty.
Satire employs redicule and is used for the purpose of expressing some moral or social vice (порок).
2. Climax – is a figure in speech, in which a number of ideas or notions are so arranged, that each succeeding one, is more expressive, important or emotional, than the preceding one.
Ex. Many people were injured, wounded, hilled.
I’m sorry. I’m very sorry. I’m terribly sorry.
Such an organization of the utterance creates a gradual intensification of its significance, both logical and emotive and imparts dynamism to the saying.
C. may be:
- qualitative
- quantitative
With quantitative C., it is size or quantity, which increases
Ex. It had been a grey day, a grey summer, a grey summer.
Qualitative C. is the increase in emotional force or significance of the utterance.
Sometimes qualitative C. becomes emotional and logical.
Ex. And she was desparately, wildly in love with Lorance Redy (the increase in
emotional force)
A peculiar variety is represented, when a negative structure undergoes intensification.
Ex. No tree, no shrub, no blode of grass, that was not cold.
Anticlimax (lathos) – is an abrupt toning down, a shift from a lofty tone to a low one. It is often occured through cooccurance of low and high-flown w-ds. Sometimes emotions or logical importanceis accumulated only to be unexpectedly broken. The effect of L. is usually humorous.
Ex. He was unconsiderable – for an afternoon.
Women have a wonderful instinct about things. They can discover every thing except
obvious.
3. Antithesis – is a device, presenting two contrasting ideas in close neighbourhood. In many cases it is expressed with a help of antonyms and parallel constructions.
Ex. It was the best of times. It was the worst of times. It was the age of wisdom. It was
the age of foolishness.
This device is used to create the understanding of the complex nature of some phenomenon. It emphases some contrasting features.
Oxymoron – is a combination of contrasting ideas or notions, of two non-combinating w-ds.
Ex. He had a large capital of debts.
O. may be presented by dif-t patters:
- adj-ve + N: a living grave
- N of N: paradise of our dispair
- V + adv: to cry silently
- simile: gentle as hill
- Sopy was doomed to liberty
- she was ugly in a present way
O. preveals a contradictory features of one and the same phenomenon. It gives a strong evaluation of it. One of its components discloses the adj-vely existing feature, while the other creates the writer’s personal attitude to it.
Ex. parting is such sweet sorrow.
Synonyms (Кузнецов, Скребнев «Стилистика англ.языка»)
Periphrasis (Гальперин)