The connection of S. with other branches of S. 1

Functions:
1. to create realistic background to historical events
2. terminological function
3. satirical purposes (Byron)
4. elevative effect
Poetic w-ds aim at producing and elevating effect, they may also be used for satirical purpose.
INFORMAL W-DS belong to non-literary stratum of voc-ry and the classification here is not strict; there is no stability in this layer as a whole. It comprises w-ds, which are used in a strictly informal intercoarse: slang, jargonisms, vulgarisms... In lit-re they are used mostly for speech char-n, but there is a growing tendency, especially in American lit-re, to write the whole novel employing such w-ds, especially vulgarisms.

6. DESCRIPTIVE TROPES include:

- metaphoric
- metonimic
- mixed groups
All these gropes have one feature in common. The expressive means are built on the presence of some common features of the objects, described and some others, known to the reader.
Two objects or ideas may be associated in 2 ways: by similarity or contiguity. Metaphoric group is based on the 1^st type – similarity; metonimic is based on contiguity; the mixed includes troes based bth on metaphor and metonymy.
METAPHORIC GROUP
Metaphor is a transfer of a name from one object to another on the basis of common feature:

• 
  it’s a trope, on which and unlike objects one compared by identification or by substitution of one for another
  
• 
  it is the application of a name to an object, to which it’s not literary applicable (Take away love. And our Earth is a tomb)
  
• 
  is a perception of similarity in disimilars
  
• 
  is a widden comparison, but not any comparing w-d is used; it’s not lex-ly expressed
  

There are may be dif-t variations of metaphor:
1. a noun metaphor (I’m a sheap without a radar or a night without a star – Shakespeare)
2. a w-d metaphor – the transference of the qualitative features of the ch-re.
Metaphoric is very effective, throws light on the subject of the matter as well. M. may be expressed by any part of the sent-ce, by any part od speech: nouns, nominal phrases, verbs, adj., adv., whole passages and whole works of art.
Some linguists (Cherkasova) consider M. to be not so much a transfer of m-ng, but the interaction ob dif-t m-ngs of the w-d: primary (dictionary) and secondary (contextual). Stotford (Am.) believes that M. is a new 3^rd m-ng of the w-d, the result of the interaction of 2 other m-ngs
The following basic view on M:
1. the substitution view - conveys that a M. is a simple replacement of a literal statement.
2. the comparison view – is that a M. an atriviated simile.
3. the interaction view – the interpreter reconstructs the m-ng of a M. on the basis of lexical constituants of a M. Through the interaction of the m-ngs of literaland metaph. terms a new view of concept associated with the literal arises (Black) (“Ты мое солнышко”).
Nowadays the subject of M. is very popular in ling-cs. Am. ling-ts Lakoff and Johnson in the book “M-s we live by” speak of conventional or cognitive M-s and state that M. is a basic char-c of l-ge and human cognition (познание), M. is much tired to cultural values (Time is money).
The M. discription aims at giving the new perspective to the object, it may be based on outersimilarity (внутр.), on inner functional simplicity and on puraly emotive grounds (“England has two eyes: Oxford and Cambridge” – inner function)
Simile is of the some nature as metaphor. It also shows likeness in disimilar objects. The dif-ce is b/w explicit and implicit imagery; b/w image by analogy (A is like B) and image by identification (A is B):
Ex. “Mr Brown fought like a lion” – simile
“Mr Brown was a real lion” – metaphor
The two components of a simile are joined together by conjunctions: like, as...though, as if, as...as. Sometimes the comparison may be expressed lexically by verbs to seem, to resemble, to remind of. The third way of expressing S. is by degrees of comparison (She is older than all the ices of the Arctic.
S. is a just opposition (расположенных рядом) of two objects with some common property by which one of them is more widely char-zed (She is sobing like a like tac (протекающий кран)).
S. is an expressive means, existing in dif-t l-ges (Кавказ был весь как на ладони)
One shouldn’t mix S. with logical comparison (John is as stupid as a stick – LC). S. is based on the comparison of objects belonging to dif-t classes and an element of imagination is involved (Ночь темна как душа Азефа – S.). Unlike LC, S. sets against each other quite alleien objects. Only one property of the two objects is made: comment on them is intensified to such an extend that a new understanding of the both objects is achieved (The air war warm and felt like a kiss).
S. can show definite obj.qualities of the compared objects. But sometimes not qualities but actions and status may be compared
Ex. He feels his title hanging on hin like a jails
From the hourse’s mouth (из первых рук)
He had been staring at Eva like a bull at a picknick.
S. may be negative and in this case, it is more effective than a positive S. (“Blow, blow, thou, winter wind, thou, art, not so unkind as man is gratitude” – King Lear)
To distinguish b/w S and metaphor one should remember that M aims at identifying while S keeps the objects apart (“All the world is a stage” – M). Real M has a radiating force. It radiates with expressiveness the whole s-ce and even a whole passage. There has been a growing interest in the “why” of M and S. the mechanism of these two devices. They are often refered to “as images” in the sence troups, expressing similarity.


The structure of an image:
Both simile and metaphor present str-re nad may be analised into their component parts. This scheme was suggested by Richards:
1. the 1^st component part – the tenor – the thing we are talking about.
2. the 2^nd comp-t is the vehicle – that to which the tenor is compared
3. the ground – the common feature b/w the tenor and the vehicle (основание сравнения)
I t is difficult to trace and at the same time it makes it possible to associate the tenor and the vehicle (Берегись автомобиля: «Подберезовиков поглядел на нее как редактор
tenor vehicle на опечатку»)
The tenor of M may be present or only implied, while with S it is always present
Ex. The clock has struck, time was bleeding away – tenor
Darkness, when once it fell, fell like a stone.
The overall effect of M and S – the image, depends on the kind of vehicle the author chooses. The choice of vehicle may char-ze the individual style of the author, his individual outlook and also the period’s time.
Ex. “Like a dying lady...the moon arose” – vehicle
“The moon like flower” – simplicity, purity
The spheres from which vehicles were borrowed were dif-t with dif-t poets and writers. Shakespeare prefered images and vehicles from nature, Byron – vulcanou (вулкан), Shelly – water.
Sometimes the same image can have dif-t connotations with dif-t poets and writers. Byron introduces an image of proud, freedom – “loving bird”. Marlay wrote that M is a unique expression of the writer’s individual vision.
Extanded or sustained images (развернутые образы)
Images may be:

• 
  single, expressed in one w-d (phrase)
  
• 
  extatanded, developed in various way, adding new and new details to vehicle, discovering the analogy with the tenor in more than one poet, making all kinds of variations on the theme.
  

Thus, similes and metaphors may be realized on a supersent-ce level within a passage and sometimes within a whole book. M may be so prolonged as to become the whole str-ral organization of the book (Starnback “The cast of Edem”)
Thus, sustained M is eleborated. It is a serious of images, which are logically connected. There is the central image and contributary images.
The semantics of the image. Metaphor, simile.
1. Simile and metaohir show the likeness in disimilar objects. There must be smth striking and unexpected in every image. It must produse a surprising effect due to the discovery of some common element in two seemingly disparate (несоразмерных) phenomena. This effect is refered to as “disparity” effect (‘эффект несоответствия).
Ex. A professor must have a theory, as a dog must have a fluse.
2. Another distinctive image of the genuien (настоящего) image is multiple m-ng. In metaphor we deal with a blending of two m-ngs into one. But at the same time we consious of both w-ds, we have the impression of double image. The sentual feature of the M is a certain semantic distance b/w the tenor and the vehicle, because if they are too close, the perspective of double vision may be ruined with M as if have two transparent lanes, matched and one is seen throgh the other.
Ex. Black wires grow on her head (simile; M differs from S that fusion (смещение) is
more perfect. S. is more rational and the prosess is of analygising)
3. Embiguity (неопределенность). The image of M and S must be capable from rendering more than one interpretation
Ex. Заплаканная осень, как вдова.
The functions of metaphor and simile:
1. The extand l-ge, to what can not be said in terms of literal m-ng alone (буквально), to express the inexpressible.
2. S and M may serve as a means of clearing m-ng by evoking images, by suggesting analogy, comparing the object or phenomenon with concrete or familiar things. The writer makes his discription clearer and more pictureresque. The writer preserves his emotional attitude to what is being described.
Tride imagery (истертое)
Once created S or M strikes us as new, fresh, expressive is called genuien. But from frequent use they became tride and sometimes turned into dead images.
There is a great number of so-called trditional S, which must be regarded as phraseological units (blind as a fool; to smoke like a chimney; to drink like fish). In these similes the names of animals, natural phenomena, plants are often used as vehicles. Traditioanal S are often employed by writers in the direct speech of char-re to individualize their speech. They don’t convey any shades of quality, but shaw the highest degree of it, the present the kind of exageration (He sat as still as a stone).
Imageloss poetry (проза)
Imagery or figurative l-ge is very sensual but not the only propery of verbal art. In fact, a poem or a story may contain no tropes and be genuine art. Стилистический прием преднамеренной простоты описания посредством слов, употребленный только в прямых значениях, называется тавтологией (Hamingway)
TROUPS OF CONTIGUITY OR METONYMICAL GROUP.
This group includes:

• 
  metonymy
  
• 
  synechdoche
  

Metonymy is a trope, in which the name of some object or idea is substituted for another, to which it has some permanent objectivity, existing relations. If any M is essentually a comparison. There is no likeness b/w two components of the M. The substitution is possible because of some logical or essentual relation b/w them.
Ex. Direct had also married money.
In M b/w the object made and the object implied are various and numerous. The most frequent types are:

• 
  the instrument stands for the action
  
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  the doer of the action (Give every man thei eye and few thei voice)
  
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  the symbol is used instead of the notion it symbolises (Коня, коня, венец мой за коня!)
  
• 
  an article of clothing stands for the person wearing it (Короткая юбка бежала по тропинке)
  
• 
  the pause stands for the effect or consequense or the other way round (He made his way through the perfume and conversation)
  
• 
  the creator for his creations, or the works for the creator
  
• 
  the container for the thing contain (The audience laught)
  
• 
  the quality for the bearer of this quality, the property to the subject (Miss Marple decided that the bushy eyebrows must be professor Wansted. Who is the mustashe?)